Methodical manual on the discipline "Fundamentals of Philosophy". Textbook: Fundamentals of Philosophy Lectures on the academic discipline Fundamentals of Philosophy
FOUNDATIONS OF PHILOSOPHY
Collection of tasks
for independent work of students
for socio-economic profile
Compiled in accordance with the Federal State Educational Standard SPO-3 and the work program of the discipline "Fundamentals of Philosophy" for specialties of the socio-economic profile, approved by the methodological council of the technical school. Minutes No. _____ dated "____" ____________ 20____.
Compiler
Humanities teacher
technical school "S.N. Vlasov
Reviewers
humanities teacher
GOU SPO "Belovsky Polytechnic
technical school "N.I. Yuryeva
External Reviewer
Teacher
| Introduction | |
| Topic 1.1. Philosophy ancient world. | |
| Topic 1.4. Philosophy of the Modern Age. | |
| Topic 1.5. german classical philosophy. | |
| Topic 1.6. Philosophy of modern times | |
| Topic 1.7. Philosophical thought in Russia. | |
| Topic 1.8. Features of world philosophy. | |
| Section 2. Man - problems of consciousness and cognition. | |
| Topic 2.1. Man as the main philosophical problem. | |
| Topic 2.2. Man like biosocial being. | |
| Topic 2.3. Essence human activity. | |
| Topic 2.6. The problem of consciousness in philosophy. | |
| Topic 3.1. Spiritual world person. | |
| Topic 3.3. Philosophy and Religion. | |
| Section 4. Social life | |
| Topic 4.1. Philosophy and history. | |
| Topic 4.2. Philosophy and culture. |
Introduction
Philosophy is a field of human knowledge that studies the most general aspects of the main forms of being: nature, man, society, knowledge. Philosophy differs from such forms in the general, essential, fundamental nature of its knowledge. human knowledge like mythology, religion, science, art.
Science enriches and improves the culture of thinking, participates in the formation of a worldview, provides knowledge about the most general aspects of life and provides a methodology that helps in solving various problems of both theoretical and practical nature. One of the most important tasks of the philosophy course is to expand the horizon of the student's vision of the modern world, the education of personal qualities, the formation of citizenship and patriotism. Due to its peculiarities, philosophy is the basic discipline for studying both the humanities and many other disciplines.
Methodological recommendations are designed to solve the following tasks: to acquaint with the structure and methodology of teaching the philosophy course, to present tasks for independent work, to provide information about educational literature. Methodological recommendations are intended for full-time students. Methodical recommendations are created on the basis of the current Curriculum, taking into account all the requirements for the educational process in this subject.
The collection of tasks for independent work is an integral part of the educational and methodological set on philosophy for a technical profile.
This collection is compiled in accordance with the working program of the discipline "Fundamentals of Philosophy".
All tasks are selected according to the thematic sections of the course. This will help students navigate through them.
The correct performance of all independent tasks, attending lectures and active work in seminars guarantee the student an excellent mark for the entire course.
Assignments must be completed strictly on topics, after listening to lectures or working at seminars. Questions that will cause difficulties will be explained in the seminars.
The questions and tasks of the collection can be used both for homework, and in philosophy classes and to test students' knowledge.
The purpose of this manual is to help students independently organize their study time during classroom activities and extracurricular work in order to master new educational material; implementation of search work using electronic resources; improvement of practical skills and abilities, including research ones.
Formed competencies:
OK 1. Understand the essence and social significance of your future profession, show a steady interest in it.
OK 2. Organize their own activities, choose standard methods and methods for performing professional tasks, evaluate their effectiveness and quality.
OK 3. Make decisions in standard and non-standard situations and be responsible for them.
OK 4. Search and use the information necessary for the effective performance of professional tasks, professional and personal development.
OK 5. Use information and communication technologies in professional activities.
OK 6. Work in a team and in a team, communicate effectively with colleagues, management, consumers.
OK 7. Take responsibility for the work of team members (subordinates), for the result of completing tasks.
OK 8. Independently determine the tasks of professional and personal development, engage in self-education, consciously plan advanced training.
OK 9. Navigate in conditions of frequent change of technologies in professional activity.
OK 10. Perform military duty, including with the application of acquired professional knowledge (for boys).
The goals and objectives of the organization of independent work are to:
Motivate students to master the curriculum;
– increase the responsibility of students for their learning;
- to promote the development of general and personal competencies of students;
- to create conditions for the formation of students' ability to self-education, self-government and self-development.
The collection consists of an Introduction, a description of tasks for independent work of students. Assignments are drawn up in accordance with the SIW Program, control over their implementation is carried out by the teacher in accordance with the SI schedule.
The Collection includes tasks of the following types of SR:
- acquisition of new knowledge;
- to master the ability to independently acquire knowledge;
- to consolidate and systematize the acquired knowledge;
- on the formation of practical skills.
The SW organization uses textbooks, teaching aids, Internet resources, handouts, and video tutorials.
Independent work is performed by students orally, developing thinking, consciousness, language.
How to work with the "Philosophical Dictionary" and other philosophical texts.Articles of any philosophical dictionary can be divided into four main types:
about various philosophical directions, currents, schools, incl. national;
about personalities (biographies and characteristics of the work of classical philosophers);
about individual philosophical works that had a particularly outstanding significance and influence;
When studying philosophical concepts, it is recommended not to limit yourself to the first two lines of the definition, because they remain completely meaningless and formal without studying the entire content of the article. Articles are arranged in alphabetical order. If the title of the article consists of several words, then the word with which the specific content of the article is associated is placed in the first place. In the event that a certain problem or name is also mentioned in other entries of this dictionary, a reference to them is transferred in the text in italics, or is highlighted in another way. As a rule, the dictionary contains a page (or article-by-article) index, a list of abbreviations, as well as a list of foreign terms and expressions used in it (philosophical "winged words").
In some cases, students are required to be able to analyze passages from the texts of classical philosophical works. In doing so, it is advisable to be guided by the following short plan:
What piece is the excerpt from?
What is the philosophical tradition and genre to which the work belongs? What are the main philosophical categories and how does the author use them?
Section 1. The main ideas of world philosophy from antiquity to modern times.
to acquaint the student with the essence (main sections, problems) of philosophy, its role in the life of a person and society, the most important stages of development philosophical thought, the main directions and currents of modern philosophy;
Topic 1.1. Philosophy of the ancient world
The objectives of the study of the topic:
To study the main stages in the history of ancient philosophy, the life and work of the most famous philosophers that time;
Develop the ability to highlight the main thing, draw conclusions and generalizations, use additional literature and other sources that reveal this topic; arouse interest in culture Ancient Greece.
Exercises and tasks
Comment on the aphorisms of Democritus:
“To a wise man the whole earth is open. For to a good soul the fatherland is the whole world.”
"Happiness and unhappiness are in the soul."
"It is better for fools to obey than to command"
"Happy is he who has wealth and intelligence."
“Better is the hope of the educated than the wealth of the ignorant.”
Express your attitude to Aristotle's thought that "man is a "political animal" endowed with reason"?
- How relevant is this statement in the modern era?
Aristotle believed that the class of farmers is the best of all classes of society, since it is not capable, due to its way of life and territorial dispersal, to actively intervene in matters of government, which should be the privilege of the middle-prosperous classes.
- What important principle of social evaluation does this idea of Aristotle imply? Illustrate its action.
Literature
Volkov, Yu.G., Polikarpov, V.S. Encyclopedic Dictionary [Text]: / Yu.G.Volkov, V.S. Polikarpov - M.: Respublika, 2010.
Radugin, A.A. Philosophy. Lecture course. [Text]: / A.A. Radugin - M .: Center, 2010.
IR.1 http: www. philosophy. enPhilosophical portal
IR.2
IR.3
IR.4
Topic 1.4.Philosophy of the Modern Age.
The objectives of the study of the topic:
learn the most prominent representatives of the philosophical thought of the era of the New Age and the main ideas that appear at this time, the meaning and significance of this era.
Exercises and tasks
1. Consider and compare the statements of two philosophers:
"To live is to think." (Cicero)
“I think, therefore I exist” (R. Descartes)
What are the similarities and differences between the statements of the two philosophers?
Descartes said: I think, therefore I am. This statement has at least two different meanings. What are they?
2. Did the historical era contribute to the formation of such statements?
"... History would have a very mystical character if "accidents" did not play any role. These accidents are, of course, themselves an integral part of the general course of development, balanced by other accidents. But acceleration and deceleration depend to a large extent on these "accidents", among which also appears such an "accident" as the character of the people at the beginning at the head of the movement.
Expand the meaning of the judgment of K. Marx.
3. Express your attitude to this quote using the example of the modern era.
Literature
1. Kuznetsov, V. N. Short story philosophy [Text]: / V.N. Kuznetsov - M.: Thought, 2007.
2. Nikiforov, A. L. The nature of philosophy. Fundamentals of Philosophy [Text]: / A.L. Nikiforov - M .: Idea-Press, 2009.
3. Volkogonova O.D. Fundamentals of Philosophy: textbook [Text]: / O.D. Volkogonov, N.M. Sidorova. - M.: I.D. "FORUM": INFRA-M, 2009.- 480 p.
4. Gubin V.D. Fundamentals of philosophy: textbook [Text]: / V.D. Gubin. - M.: TON, 2009. - 391 p.
5. Sychev A.A. Fundamentals of philosophy: textbook [Text]: / A.A. Sychev.- M.6 Alpha-M: INFRA-M, 2010.-368 p.
IR.1 http: www. philosophy. enPhilosophical portal
IR.2 wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophy
IR.3 http://www.nauki-online.ru/filosofija
IR.4 http://sites.google.com/site/viktorovcharenko/filosofia
Topic 1.5.German classical philosophy
The objectives of the study of the topic:
Be able to logically formulate, present and reasonably defend their own vision of problems and ways to solve them;
learn the most prominent representatives of the philosophical thought of German classical philosophy and the main ideas that appear at this time, the meaning and significance of this era.
be able to trace the influence of fundamental philosophical ideas on the development of science and art of a given era.
1. Duty and inclinations according to Kant
Kant sharply opposed love, inclinations, desire of a person to his duty. "Duty! - he exclaims, - You are an exalted, great word, since there is nothing in you that is obsequious, that would flatter people ... only from it arise the necessary conditions the dignity that people can give themselves. This is precisely the great thing that elevates a person above himself (as part of the sensory world) ... ”It follows from Kant’s theory that a person acts morally when he acts according to his duty and immorally - according to his inclinations. Love, according to Kant, is immoral. This view was ridiculed by Schiller in his poem:
Express your point of view.
2. Kant argued: "We cannot think of any object except with the help of categories."
- What did he mean? Give a detailed answer.
3. Hegel said: "Only that which is absolutized is false." - What did he mean? Comment.
4. Some blame F. Nietzsche for the atrocities of fascism in the twentieth century. Others argue that this philosopher is not responsible for the atrocities of fascism.
Literature
4. Fedorova, M. Classical political philosophy. [Text]: / M. Fedorova - M .: Thought, 2001.
IR.1 http: www. philosophy. enPhilosophical portal
IR.2 wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophy
IR.3 http://www.nauki-online.ru/filosofija
IR.4 http://sites.google.com/site/viktorovcharenko/filosofia
Topic 1.6.Philosophy of modern times
The objectives of the study of the topic:
Be able to logically formulate, present and reasonably defend their own vision of problems and ways to solve them;
to learn the most prominent representatives of the philosophical thought of the era of modern times and the main ideas that appear at this time, the meaning and significance of this era.
be able to trace the influence of fundamental philosophical ideas on the development of science and art of a given era.
Exercises and tasks
According to the American philosopher C. Pierce, "truth is what we believe in."
Do you agree with him?
What philosophical direction does C. Pierce belong to?
Who, in your opinion, could belong to the aphorism: "Convictions are more dangerous enemies than lies."
- To what philosophical direction should it be attributed?
3. Some hold F. Nietzsche responsible for the atrocities of fascism in the twentieth century. Others argue that this philosopher is not responsible for the atrocities of fascism. Who is right? Justify your answer.
4. Z. Freud said: “Every person is a psychopath. The only difference between people in this regard is that some people know they are psychopaths, while others are unaware of it.”
A very imprudent statement. First, it is internally contradictory. Secondly, it characterizes rather than people, but the author himself.
Give your assessment of Z. Freud's statement and explain the comment to it.
Literature
2. Gubin V.D. Fundamentals of philosophy: textbook [Text]: / V.D. Gubin. - M.: TON, 2009. - 391 p.
3. Sychev A.A. Fundamentals of philosophy: textbook [Text]: / A.A. Sychev.- M.6 Alpha-M: INFRA-M, 2010.-368 p.
4. Schumpeter, J. Capitalism, socialism and democracy [Text]: / J. Schumpeter– M.: Nauka, 2005.
IR.1 http: www. philosophy. enPhilosophical portal
IR.2 wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophy
IR.3 http://www.nauki-online.ru/filosofija
IR.4 http://sites.google.com/site/viktorovcharenko/filosofia
Topic 1.7. Philosophical thought in Russia.
The objectives of the study of the topic:
Be able to logically formulate, present and reasonably defend their own vision of problems and ways to solve them;
learn the most prominent representatives of Russian philosophical thought and the main ideas that appear at this time, the meaning and significance of Russian philosophy
be able to trace the influence of fundamental philosophical ideas on the development of science and art in Russia.
Tasks and exercises
"Russian philosophy is the philosophy of Prevention and its leitmotif is a moral veto on any social project" 1 .
- How relevant is this thought today, in an era of global change?
Is it possible now to revive the ideas of Slavophilism and Westernism? What form would this dispute take? Which side is your position on?
3.Comment words of M. V. Lomonosov:
“It’s easy for these smart people to be philosophers, learning by heart three words: God created this, and giving this in response instead of all reasons.”
Literature
1. Volkogonova O.D. Fundamentals of Philosophy: textbook [Text]: / O.D. Volkogonov, N.M. Sidorova. - M.: I.D. "FORUM": INFRA-M, 2009.- 480 p.
2. Gubin V.D. Fundamentals of philosophy: textbook [Text]: / V.D. Gubin. - M.: TON, 2009. - 391 p.
3. Sychev A.A. Fundamentals of philosophy: textbook [Text]: / A.A. Sychev.- M.6 Alpha-M: INFRA-M, 2010.-368 p.
4.Frank S.L. Spiritual foundations of society. [Text]: - M .: Respublika, 2002.
IR.1 http: www. philosophy. enPhilosophical portal
IR.2 wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophy
IR.3 http://www.nauki-online.ru/filosofija
IR.4 http://sites.google.com/site/viktorovcharenko/filosofia
IR.5 http://filosofij.ucoz.ru/index/russkaja_filosofija
Topic 1.8 Features of world philosophy.
The objectives of the study of the topic:
Be able to logically formulate, present and reasonably defend their own vision of problems and ways to solve them;
learn the most prominent representatives of the philosophical thought of world philosophy and the main ideas that appear at this time, the meaning and significance of science.
be able to trace the influence of fundamental philosophical ideas on the development of science and art.
1. Who do you think is right? Comment
A. Smart sees the immeasurable realm of the possible (D. Diderot).
B. An uneducated person tends to operate with empty possibilities (Hegel).
2. Does the world exist by itself, from time immemorial, or is it created and controlled by God?
Which answer do you choose and why?
3. Is the world created by God? Yes or no? - Which answer do you prefer and why?
4. What is more in the world: order or disorder?
Give a detailed answer.
5.How do you rate these two mutually exclusive statements:
Hegel: “... everything spiritual is better than any product of nature”
R. Mayer (biologist): “Nature in its simple truth is greater and more beautiful than any creation of human hands, than all the illusions of the created spirit
6. Is our thinking possible (can we think) without the use of fundamental categories (matter and motion, quality, quantity, measure, space and time, possibility and reality, necessity and chance, cause and effect, etc.)? - Explain your answer, give examples.
7. A very common mistake is when the effect is taken as the cause, and the cause is taken as the effect.
Give examples of this error.
Literature
1. Kuznetsov V. N. A Brief History of Philosophy [Text]: - M .: Thought, 2007.
2. Volkogonova O.D. Fundamentals of Philosophy: textbook [Text]: / O.D. Volkogonov, N.M. Sidorova. - M.: I.D. "FORUM": INFRA-M, 2009.- 480 p.
3. Gubin V.D. Fundamentals of philosophy: textbook [Text]: / V.D. Gubin. - M.: TON, 2009. - 391 p.
4. Sychev A.A. Fundamentals of philosophy: textbook [Text]: / A.A. Sychev.- M.6 Alpha-M: INFRA-M, 2010.-368 p.
IR.1 http: www. philosophy. enPhilosophical portal
IR.2 wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophy
IR.3 http://www.nauki-online.ru/filosofija
IR.4 http://sites.google.com/site/viktorovcharenko/filosofia
Section 2. Man - problems of consciousness and cognition.
During the training, the following tasks are set:
to teach the student to navigate the most common issues of being and cognition, the problems of values, freedom and the meaning of life, independently formulate, analyze, justify and, if necessary, defend their beliefs, use philosophical concepts and methods in the course of professional activities, in the process of making decisions and maintaining discussions.
The section shows the specificity of the philosophical approach to the study of man, the main mechanisms of the activity of consciousness, the most important forms and methods of human cognition of the world around.
Topic 2.1 Man as the main philosophical problem
learn the main problems associated with the study of man: his origin, basic relationships, the main characteristics of his being.
be able to analyze modern philosophical and scientific ideas about human nature.
Exercises and tasks
1. "My son cannot replace me. I could not replace myself. I am a product of circumstances." (Napoleon)
What circumstances do you think it is?
Can a person change the circumstances of his life?
2. When considering the problem of personality typology, the following opinions were expressed at the seminar:
The typology of the personality reduces everything complex and unique inherent in the personality to some groups and considers each personality as a representative of a particular group that has common characteristic properties, features, orientation, etc.
The typological approach to the personality coarsens the character of the personality, it is only the first approximation to its real wealth.
The typology of personality practically and theoretically allows a deeper understanding of some common features characteristic of certain people.
The development of a personality typology is necessary for education and self-education, perhaps for the happiness of every person. Awareness of the typology of personality affects the choice of activity, the upbringing and development of each person.
Analyze the points of view presented here.
3. Man is free to choose the direction of his actions. Human activity is subject to objective social laws.
Do these statements contradict each other?
4. Today, prophecies of doom are increasingly heard. While they serve the important function of drawing attention to the dangerous trends in our present situation, they do not take into account the promise contained in human achievements in the natural sciences, psychology, medicine, and the arts. And these achievements reflect the presence of powerful fruitful forces that do not fit with the picture of a decaying culture.
What should the human community do to preserve its future?
Literature
1. Volkogonova O.D. Fundamentals of Philosophy: textbook [Text]: / O.D. Volkogonov, N.M. Sidorova. - M.: I.D. "FORUM": INFRA-M, 2009.- 480 p.
2. Gubin V.D. Fundamentals of philosophy: textbook [Text]: / V.D. Gubin. - M.: TON, 2009. - 391 p.
3. Sychev A.A. Fundamentals of philosophy: textbook [Text]: / A.A. Sychev.- M.6 Alpha-M: INFRA-M, 2010.-368 p.
IR.1 http: www. philosophy. enPhilosophical portal
IR.2 wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophy
IR.3 http://www.nauki-online.ru/filosofija
IR.4 http://sites.google.com/site/viktorovcharenko/filosofia
Topic 2.2 Man as a biosocial being
The objectives of the study of the topic:
- acquisition of knowledge and skills in the field of human philosophy, as well as the skills necessary for the formation of a student's general cultural and professional competencies and the application of philosophical and general scientific methods in everyday and professional life.
1. Who do you think is right and why?
A. Man is the measure of all things (Protagoras).
B. No need to measure the temperature of society by placing a thermometer under your armpits (modern political scientist).
Comment.
2. Does everything in life depend on us? If not, to what extent does our life depend on us?
- Give a detailed answer.
3.Judge:
A. Pestalozzi I.G., the famous teacher, the founder of the theory of primary education, argued: "A person is formed by circumstances." Marcus Aurelius advised: "If you cannot change the circumstances, change your attitude towards them."
B. Balashov L.E .: "A person only achieves something when he is stronger than circumstances."
- Give a detailed answer.
5. Who do you think is right and why?
A. How many things in the world that I do not need (Socrates).
B. If a thing is not suitable for one purpose, it can be used for another (Lao Tzu).
Comment.
Literature
1. Volkogonova O.D. Fundamentals of Philosophy: textbook [Text]: / O.D. Volkogonov, N.M. Sidorova. - M.: I.D. "FORUM": INFRA-M, 2009.- 480 p.
2. Gubin V.D. Fundamentals of philosophy: textbook [Text]: / V.D. Gubin. - M.: TON, 2009. - 391 p.
3. Sychev A.A. Fundamentals of philosophy: textbook [Text]: / A.A. Sychev.- M.6 Alpha-M: INFRA-M, 2010.-368 p.
IR.1 http: www. philosophy. enPhilosophical portal
IR.2 wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophy
IR.3 http://www.nauki-online.ru/filosofija
IR.4 http://sites.google.com/site/viktorovcharenko/filosofia
Topic 2.3The essence of human activity
The objectives of the study of the topic:
to know the basic characteristics of human existence, to know the main types of human activity, to know how a person learns the world.
be able to analyze philosophical and scientific ideas about human nature, develop an independent attitude to such categories of human existence as love, creativity, death, faith, happiness, etc.
What did Biant, one of the seven Greek sages, want to say with this phrase: “Life must be measured in such a way that you have little and much left to live”?
Try to reconstruct the course of his thought.
Does life expectancy increase or decrease with age? - Give a detailed answer.
Literature
1. Volkogonova O.D. Fundamentals of Philosophy: textbook [Text]: / O.D. Volkogonov, N.M. Sidorova. - M.: I.D. "FORUM": INFRA-M, 2009.- 480 p.
2. Gubin V.D. Fundamentals of philosophy: textbook [Text]: / V.D. Gubin. - M.: TON, 2009. - 391 p.
3. Sychev A.A. Fundamentals of philosophy: textbook [Text]: / A.A. Sychev.- M.6 Alpha-M: INFRA-M, 2010.-368 p.
IR.1 http: www. philosophy. enPhilosophical portal
IR.2 wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophy
IR.3 http://www.nauki-online.ru/filosofija
IR.4 http://sites.google.com/site/viktorovcharenko/filosofia
Topic 2.6The problem of consciousness in philosophy
Goals of studying the topic:
to know the nature and structure of consciousness and the methods of man's knowledge of himself.
be able to analyze scientific ideas about human nature.
Exercises and tasks
1. "Consciousness is not only a miracle of the universe, but also a cross ... the vast majority of thinkers seriously believe that consciousness is God's "accursed gift" to man, and without it man would be happy. In consciousness, not only all knowledge about the world is given, but also all the pain of the world. It is no coincidence that in order to relieve pain (mental or physical), consciousness is turned off for a while with the help of drugs, alcohol, etc.".
2. Why in the consciousness of the "I" of a person lives a split life?
3. Why does Christian theology believe that the state of consciousness is the result of human sin?
4. What, from the point of view of existentialism, is the tragedy and sadness of consciousness?
5. "Reflecting the objective world in its content, consciousness is determined by nature and social reality. Objects, their properties and relationships exist in it in the form of images - ideally; the ideal acts as an object of brain activity, as a subjective image of the objective world."
Is it possible to say that consciousness is a screen onto which the surrounding world is projected?
Is there something in consciousness that is not conditioned by the outside world?
6. "Representing a property of highly organized matter of the brain, consciousness acts as a conscious being, a subjective image of the objective world, a subjective reality, and in epistemological terms - as an ideal as opposed to the material and in unity with it."
Is consciousness always a conscious being? Where does something appear in consciousness that is not in life? What is the reason for the distorted display of the world by consciousness?
7. "Over the centuries, human consciousness has increasingly shown its power. Thousands of fantastic utopias - resurrecting a person from the dead, regulating sex, transferring knowledge during sleep, flying to the stars, the ability to get food and clothes from air and oil - all these utopias have ceased be only fairy tales, consciousness explained them, revealed how they can be achieved.But there are not enough material, technical possibilities for this, consciousness has rapidly gone ahead of material life.It could in an instant establish heaven on earth: it is only necessary to realize his great discoveries and social ideals".
What is the reason for the advancing or lagging of consciousness behind practice? Why not all ideals of consciousness can be realized?
8. Expand the meaning of the statements:
consciousness by its nature has a social character;
objective consciousness;
man thinks with the help of the brain;
consciousness is not only thinking, self-consciousness, but also the abstract activity of the brain;
self-consciousness appears in different forms;
consciousness is a fusion of the conscious and the unconscious, the mind and the senses;
with intuition, the object is given to the subject without any prerequisites and conditions.
9. What statements can you agree with? With what - it is impossible?
a person cannot know his own psyche, just as he cannot pull himself out of a swamp by his hair, or see himself in a window, as if he himself were walking down the street;
a person's consciousness is judged not by what he says or writes, but by what he does;
my mental state can be understood through self-observation;
a thought can be recorded in an electroencephalogram;
an individual who thinks cannot be separated so that one part of him is reasoning, and the other is watching the reasoning.
Literature
1. Volkogonova O.D. Fundamentals of Philosophy: textbook [Text]: / O.D. Volkogonov, N.M. Sidorova. - M.: I.D. "FORUM": INFRA-M, 2009.- 480 p.
2. Gubin V.D. Fundamentals of philosophy: textbook [Text]: / V.D. Gubin. - M.: TON, 2009. - 391 p.
3. Sychev A.A. Fundamentals of philosophy: textbook [Text]: / A.A. Sychev.- M.6 Alpha-M: INFRA-M, 2010.-368 p.
IR.1 http: www. philosophy. enPhilosophical portal
IR.2 wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophy
IR.3 http://www.nauki-online.ru/filosofija
IR.4 http://sites.google.com/site/viktorovcharenko/filosofia
Section 3. Spiritual life of man
This section examines the influence of science and scientific thinking on the development of society, analyzes the relationship between faith and reason, the role of religion and art in the formation and education of a person.
Topic 3.1Spiritual world of man
The objectives of the study of the topic:
be able to correlate the role of sciences, the role and place of religion in understanding the world, in changing human nature.
1. What (what) do you expect from life? - Give a detailed answer.
2. How should we live in order to be better? - Give a detailed answer.
3. There are two polar opinions about death.
A. Plato, through the mouth of Socrates, stated: "Those who are truly devoted to philosophy are actually occupied with only one thing - dying and death." (Phaedo, 63e-64a). A. Schopenhauer in the book "The World as Will and Representation" (T. 2, ch. XLI) begins the chapter on death as follows: “Death is truly an inspiring genius, or musaget of philosophy; hence Socrates defined the latter as θανάτου μελέτη (preparation for death [Greek]).”
B. B. Spinoza: “A free man thinks of nothing less than death, and his wisdom consists in thinking not about death, but about life.” (B. Spinoza. Ethics. - See: Spinoza B. Selected works. T. 1, M., 1957. S. 576).
- Which of them is right? Give a detailed answer.
4. Who do you think is right and why?
M. Montaigne: “The end point of our life path is death, the limit of our aspirations, and if it instills horror in us, is it possible to take at least one single step without trembling like a fever? The medicine used by ignorant people is not to think about it at all. But what animal stupidity is needed in order to possess such blindness! This is the only way to bridle the donkey from the tail ... and it is not surprising that such people often fall into a trap. (Experiments, Ch. XX).
B. Spinoza: "A free man thinks of nothing less than death, and his wisdom consists in thinking not about death, but about life." (Ethics)
- Give a detailed answer.
5.A.S. Pushkin said in the poem “I erected a monument to myself”:
No, all of me won't die
The soul in the cherished lyre will survive my ashes
And decay will flee
6. How to understand these words of his? We know that Pushkin died long ago, in 1837. But what did not die in him, what was left of him? Is the poet Pushkin alive now? Justify your answer.
7. Is man mortal or immortal? Or is he somehow mortal and somehow immortal? Justify your answer.
8. How do you feel about the idea of abolishing the death penalty? Justify your answer.
Humanity is not a herd of horses to be fed, but a club to join (Chesterton, English writer).
10.P.Ya.Chaadaev: “Love for the fatherland is a wonderful thing. But even higher is the love of truth.”
Merab Mamardashvili: "I love freedom more than my homeland."
- Rate these statements, comment.
11. Comment: To a wise man the whole earth is open. For a good soul's fatherland is the whole world. (Democritus, 5th century BC)
12. What is the difference between patriotism and nationalism? Give examples of both.
13. Is F.I. Tyutchev right when he says:
Russia cannot be understood with the mind
Do not measure with a common yardstick
She has a special
One can only believe in Russia
Russia: East or West? Or something different?
14. Do you agree with the statement “We are not Europe and not Asia. We are Russians” (TV program “Russian House”, Moskovia channel, 31.08.03). Comment.
15. Explain why the golden rule of behavior is called golden?
16. Which of the following statements can be described as a special case of the golden rule of behavior? Explain.
A person must ... be content with such a degree of freedom in relation to other people, which he would allow other people to have in relation to himself (T. Hobbes).
Freedom consists in the right to do whatever does not harm others (Claudius).
Freedom must be judged by the degree of freedom of the lowest (J. Nehru).
Do what you want, but so as not to lose this opportunity in the future (from a collection of prison aphorisms).
Reference. Negative and positive formulations of the golden rule: “do not do to others what you would not want them to do to you”; “Do unto others as you would like them to do unto you.”
Literature
1. Volkogonova O.D. Fundamentals of Philosophy: textbook [Text]: / O.D. Volkogonov, N.M. Sidorova. - M.: I.D. "FORUM": INFRA-M, 2009.- 480 p.
2. Gubin V.D. Fundamentals of philosophy: textbook [Text]: / V.D. Gubin. - M.: TON, 2009. - 391 p.
3. Sychev A.A. Fundamentals of philosophy: textbook [Text]: / A.A. Sychev.- M.6 Alpha-M: INFRA-M, 2010.-368 p.
IR.1 http: www. philosophy. enPhilosophical portal
IR.2 wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophy
IR.3 http://www.nauki-online.ru/filosofija
IR.4 http://sites.google.com/site/viktorovcharenko/filosofia
Topic 3.3 Philosophy and religion
The objectives of the study of the topic:
- acquisition of knowledge and skills in the field of philosophy of religion, as well as the skills necessary for the formation of a student's general cultural and professional competencies and the application of philosophical and general scientific methods in everyday and professional life.
Tasks and exercises
The priest in the novel The Plague said in confession: “So, the hour of reflection has come. You thought that it was enough to go to the temple of God once a week, on Sunday, so that your hands were untied for the remaining six days. You thought that "Kneeling ten times, you will make amends for your criminal carelessness. But God, he did not tolerate. These rare turns to the sky cannot satisfy his insatiable love. He wants to see you constantly, such is the manifestation of his love for you and, frankly, the only one of her manifestation. That is why, tired of waiting for your visits, he allowed the scourge to fall on you, as it has fallen on all cities bogged down in the mountains since the history of the human race.
Think about this passage. What is the relationship between religious and moral consciousness? Is there a dependence of the level of spirituality of the people on its religiosity? Highlight the social, psychological, epistemological roots of religious consciousness.
Journalist Rambert in A. Camus's novel "The Plague", trying to leave the quarantined city, suddenly realizes that it is immoral to be happy alone if everyone is unhappy.
Do you agree with this statement? How do the concepts of "capitalism" and "conscience", "capitalism" and "decency" correlate?
3. Reflect on the following statement: "Kindness must be with fists."
Is there a difference between doing evil and paying for it with evil? What determines the punishment for evil? Is there a connection between the legal and moral assessment of evil?
4. Very difficult in life is the question of the moral revival of man and society. Is it possible? If so, please answer the following questions.
What is the meaning of moral education? What needs to be done to make it happen?
Literature
1. Volkogonova O.D. Fundamentals of Philosophy: textbook [Text]: / O.D. Volkogonov, N.M. Sidorova. - M.: I.D. "FORUM": INFRA-M, 2009.- 480 p.
2. Gubin V.D. Fundamentals of philosophy: textbook [Text]: / V.D. Gubin. - M.: TON, 2009. - 391 p.
3. Sychev A.A. Fundamentals of philosophy: textbook [Text]: / A.A. Sychev.- M.6 Alpha-M: INFRA-M, 2010.-368 p.
IR.1 http: www. philosophy. enPhilosophical portal
IR.2 wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophy
IR.3 http://www.nauki-online.ru/filosofija
IR.4 http://sites.google.com/site/viktorovcharenko/filosofia
IR.4 http://sites.google.com/site/viktorovcharenko/filosofia
Section 4. Social life
The section describes the philosophical and historical concepts of the past and present, the philosophical and historical concepts of Russian thinkers of the 19th and 20th centuries, which retain their relevance today, and considers philosophical ideas about culture and civilization, the crisis of culture and global problems facing humanity today.
The student must be able to independently analyze and evaluate certain worldview and ethical positions of the surrounding people, society as a whole, states and political regimes, must think about the questions: Where did I come from in this world and what should I do in it to justify my appointment as a person ? What is this purpose? What is love, death, creativity, faith? The student must understand: in order to be, to become a man, one must learn to think philosophically, think and constantly develop one's mind.
Topic 4.1Philosophy and history
learn the basic concepts of historical development and especially the views of thinkers on historical identity.
Be able to critically analyze the basic concepts of historical development, understand the place and role of an individual in history.
Exercises and tasks
1. The American economist and sociologist W. Rostow establishes the following five stages, through which, in his opinion, childbirth also passes in its development: traditional society(the history of mankind up to and including feudalism), transitional society (approximately corresponds to the period of creating conditions for industrial translation that), shift period (covers approximately the period of the formation of an industrial society), mature society (countries with developed industry) final stage - a period of high level of mass consumption ( this stage, according to Rostow, was reached by the United States and other highly developed countries
What criterion underlies this classification of human history? Give her a rating.
2. "... The idea of historical necessity does not in the least undermine the role of the individual in history: all history is made up precisely of the actions of individuals who are undoubtedly actors. A personality is characterized not only by what it does, but also by how it does it. "
How do you understand these statements by V.I. Lenin?
3. Describe the following provisions from the point of view of the basic principle of the materialistic understanding of history:
As is the mode of production, so is society.
The key to understanding history is the types of social information systems.
The historical process is primarily associated with technological progress.
The scientific revolution determines the technical revolution, and together they determine the principles of organization of the entire set of social elements.
The social system is primarily characterized by the type of political management.
The fate of peoples is determined primarily by their external environment.
Society can be explained only on the basis of two decisive factors: the available means of production and the information on which the social activity of people is based.
Population growth, and with it the lack of means of subsistence, are the real engines of progress.
Material production stimulates and determines the nature of the development of all other types of material activity and, ultimately, the life of the whole society.
What type of socio-economic relations, such is society.
Expand the meaning of the term "historical era" based on the analysis of the following passages and other information known to you.
- "An era is called an era because it embraces the sum of various phenomena and wars, both typical and atypical, both large and small, both characteristic of advanced and characteristic of backward countries."
In the same era, different formations coexisted in different parts of the earth: for example, next to the peoples of ancient Greece and Rome, who were in the slave-owning formation, lived peoples who were at the stage of the primitive communal system; alongside capitalism, which had become firmly established in Europe and North America, feudal and pre-feudal relations were preserved in some countries.
The historical epoch covers social phenomena and processes that are characteristic to one degree or another of all countries.
5. In our time, humanity is turning into a global system. This process is characterized by the following features:
Many weak types of dependence between parts of humanity and various spheres of human activity are replaced by stronger ones.
Often, local, regional dependencies develop into universal, global ones.
In general, the degree of determination of the future states of mankind by the previous ones is increasing.
Humanity is turning into an increasingly ordered system.
Show on the factual material the correctness or fallacy of these thoughts.
Literature
1. Volkogonova O.D. Fundamentals of Philosophy: textbook [Text]: / O.D. Volkogonov, N.M. Sidorova. - M.: I.D. "FORUM": INFRA-M, 2009.- 480 p.
2. Gubin V.D. Fundamentals of philosophy: textbook [Text]: / V.D. Gubin. - M.: TON, 2009. - 391 p.
3. Sychev A.A. Fundamentals of philosophy: textbook [Text]: / A.A. Sychev.- M.6 Alpha-M: INFRA-M, 2010.-368 p.
IR.1 http: www. philosophy. enPhilosophical portal
IR.2 wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophy
IR.3 http://www.nauki-online.ru/filosofija
IR.4 http://sites.google.com/site/viktorovcharenko/filosofia
Topic 4.2Philosophy and culture
The objectives of the study of the topic:
- acquisition of knowledge and skills in the field of philosophy of culture, as well as the skills necessary for the formation of a student's general cultural and professional competencies and the application of philosophical and general scientific methods in everyday and professional life.
1. Are people getting better, is there moral progress? - Give a detailed answer.
2. Where does evil come from in the world? Is it possible to fight evil, and if so, is it possible to eliminate evil altogether?
- Give a detailed answer.
3. What do you think: is a person by nature good, evil or not good and not evil? - Give a detailed answer, justify.
4. How do you understand happiness? - Give a detailed answer.
5. What does it take to be happy?
- Give a detailed answer.
6. Some people consciously strive for self-improvement. How do you feel about this idea (self-improvement)? Does a person need to improve? And if so, in what direction(s)?
- Give a detailed answer.
7. What do you think: there is a fool protection 2 (is it possible to protect yourself from a fool)? Answer options: yes, no, or something else.
8. Why is it good to be kind and bad to be evil?
9. Do you think kindness is rare or common?
Explain your answer and give examples to support your point of view.
10. What is evil in the moral sense?
- Give a detailed answer, give examples.
11.Judge:
A) For Socrates, good coincides with knowledge, and the absence of knowledge is the only source of any moral imperfection;
B) Kant argued the opposite: “To be honest and kind, and even wise and virtuous, we do not need any science and philosophy.”
- Give a detailed answer.
12. How do you evaluate the thesis “the end justifies the means”. - Justify your answer.
13. On the one hand, there is a popular belief that “the end justifies the means” (option: “all means are good to achieve the end”). On the other hand, many are convinced that "an end that requires wrong means is not a right end." Judge. Where is the truth? Justify your answer.
15. Answer the question: is it possible to be angry and happy at the same time? or: can evil person be happy?
- Justify your answer.
16. According to F. Nietzsche, love is “an expression of selfishness” 3 . V. S. Solovyov, on the contrary, argued that true love is the transfer of the center of the “I” to another, overcoming egoism. What do you think? Justify your answer.
17. Fichte argued: there should be no marriage without love and love without marriage. And what do you think?
- Give a detailed answer.
Literature
1. Volkogonova O.D. Fundamentals of Philosophy: textbook [Text]: / O.D. Volkogonov, N.M. Sidorova. - M.: I.D. "FORUM": INFRA-M, 2009.- 480 p.
2. Gubin V.D. Fundamentals of philosophy: textbook [Text]: / V.D. Gubin. - M.: TON, 2009. - 391 p.
3. Sychev A.A. Fundamentals of philosophy: textbook [Text]: / A.A. Sychev.- M.6 Alpha-M: INFRA-M, 2010.-368 p.
IR.1 http: www. philosophy. enPhilosophical portal
IR.2 wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophy
IR.3 http://www.nauki-online.ru/filosofija
IR.4 http://sites.google.com/site/viktorovcharenko/filosofia
2 Protection from a fool - a common expression, meaning the ability (or impossibility) to protect or protect someone (something) from the rash. stupid, erroneous actions of another person (other people).
3 F. Nietzsche. Will to power. No. 362.
| Developer S.N. Vlasova | Page 31 of 31 |
"Volga State University telecommunications and informatics"
COLLEGE OF COMMUNICATION
Lecture notes for UMK
By discipline: "Fundamentals of Philosophy"
I approve the deputy Director for WRM CS PSUTI
________________A.V. Logvinov
Considered and approved at the meeting of P (C) K No. 1
"Humanitarian disciplines, economics and management"
Chairman: ____________ G.N. Shilenko
Compiled by teachers of the CS PSUTI: Osin V.I. and Putrenko L.A.
Samara 2010
2. Philosophy and worldview.
3. Philosophy and science
5. Functions of philosophy.
6. The main question of philosophy.
Topic 2 Philosophy of the ancient world and the Middle Ages. Page 6-8
Topic 3. Philosophy of modern and modern times. Page 8-15
1. The main problems and directions of this period.
2. Rationalism and its representatives.
3. Empiricism and its representatives
4.Philosophy of the Enlightenment: specifics and directions.
5. German classical philosophy. The teachings of I. Kant and F. Hegel.
6. Dialectical and historical materialism of K. Marx and F. Engels.
Topic 4. Man as the main philosophical problem. Page 15 -20
1. The concept of being and substance.
2. The essence of man. Biological and social in human development.
3. The meaning and purpose of human existence.
5. Basic forms of movement. Space and time.
6. Dialectics as a doctrine of development. Basic laws of dialectics.
Topic 5. The problem of consciousness. Page 20 -22
1. Reflection as a universal property of matter and its evolution.
2. Origin of consciousness.
3. Consciousness and the unconscious.
Topic 6. The doctrine of knowledge. Page 22-24
1. Cognition as a process. Two levels of knowledge: empirical and
rational. Forms of knowledge.
2. The problem of the cognizability of the world and truth. Dialectics
absolute and relative truth.
3. Scientific knowledge. Basic methods and forms.
Topic 7. Philosophy of the scientific picture of the world. Page 24-26
1. Philosophy of the scientific picture of the world.
Topic 8. Philosophy and religion. Pages 26 -30
1. Religious-idealistic direction.
2. World religions.
Topic 9. Philosophy and art. Page 30 -34
1. The contradictory nature of the relationship between philosophy and art and the problem of their distinction in modern culture.
2. Specificity of aesthetic experience; game as its ontological basis. Classical and postclassical art as a game.
3. Philosophy and art in the horizon of similarities and differences.
Topic 10. Philosophy and history. Page 34 -36
1. The subject of the "philosophy of history" and its stages of development.
2. Nature and society: the main stages of development.
3. Basic approaches to understanding the reasons for the development of society in social philosophy.
Topic 11. Philosophy and culture. Page 36 -38
1. The concept of culture. Material and spiritual culture. Culture and civilization.
Topic 12. Philosophy and global problems of our time. Page 38 -40
1. Specificity of global problems of mankind.
2. The main global problems of our time: environmental, demographic, the problem of war and peace.
Literature. Page 40
Topic 1. Philosophy, its meaning, functions and role in society.
1. Origin and subject of philosophy.
2. Philosophy and worldview.
3. Philosophy and science
4. Specific features philosophical knowledge.
5. Functions of philosophy.
6. The main question of philosophy.
1. Origin and subject of philosophy.
Word " philosophy" translated from ancient Greek means "love of wisdom". This term was first used by the ancient Greek scientist Pythagoras. However, this does not mean that philosophy is a purely ancient Greek "invention". In 800-600 years. BC. - there is a sharp turn in history: the process of self-awareness by a person of his own existence and the world as a whole begins, which leads to the emergence of the majority
religions and the rise of philosophy. Confucius lived at this time, in Greece - this is the time of Homer, the philosophers Heraclitus, Plato, the mechanic Archimedes. Almost at the same time and independently of each other, all areas of philosophy appeared in different parts of the world, the main categories were developed, which are still used today, and the foundations of world religions were laid. This is a period of powerful spiritual upsurge in the history of mankind. How is the world as a whole? Are there first principles and primary causes of being and what do they consist of? Is there truth and is it possible to know it? What is the purpose of a person and why is his life so complicated and contradictory? Is it possible to build a just society where everyone would be happy? To these questions man tries to give
the answers have been around for 2,500 years, and they are the ones that make up subject of philosophy. These questions correspond to the main sections of philosophy: ontology- the doctrine of life, epistemology- the doctrine of knowledge, anthropology - doctrine of man social philosophy- the doctrine of society, philosophy of history- the doctrine of the basic
patterns of development of history, axiology- learning about values ethics- the doctrine of morality, aesthetics- the doctrine of beauty. Generally philosophy can be defined as a science that studies the basic patterns of development and existence of nature, society, man and the world as a whole.
2. Philosophy and worldview.
Philosophy is of a dual nature and is considered, firstly, as one of the forms worldview, second, how the science. Under worldview is understood as a set of views and beliefs, assessments and norms, ideals and attitudes that determine a person's attitude to the world. The main questions of worldview: What is a person and the world? Where did it come from? Where and why is his destiny moving? What is the meaning of the existence of man and society? In the history of mankind, there are three main forms of worldview: mythology, religion, philosophy. Historically, the first mythology- the worldview of the ancient society, containing both fantastic and realistic perception of the surrounding reality. In myths, the rudiments of knowledge, elements of beliefs, ethical attitudes, conjectures, and fictions are connected. Main myth traits: humanization and animation of nature; the indivisibility of the world, the non-isolation of man from the Cosmos; the presence of fantastic gods, their active and direct interaction with man; lack of reflection - abstract reflections; the practical orientation of the myth to the solution of specific problems (economy, protection from the elements, diseases, etc.); emotional-figurative form expressions; descriptive character. The second form of thinking religion. It is defined as faith into the existence of supernatural forces (gods) that influence
on human life and the environment. In many ways similar to mythology (the presence of gods and emotional-figurative unsubstantiated perception of reality): includes myths.
The third, the latest in historical terms, form - philosophy. It's theoretical formalized, system-rational outlook. Philosophy, unlike mythology and religion, is based not on conjecture, fiction and faith, but on mind. It builds a rational picture of being, uses the conceptual apparatus, strives for systematicity and internal unity, tries to find the laws and general principles of being, and takes shape in the form of a theory.
3. Philosophy and science.
Philosophy was originally proto-knowledge, the one and only science - "queen of sciences» - which includes all known to man at this historical moment, knowledge about nature, society, about itself - in all directions .. This situation continued until the 15th century. During this period, the process of formation of private sciences (physics, chemistry, biology, etc.) begins with its own specific subject. Concrete sciences "sprout" from philosophy. The subject of private sciences is the laws of a particular area of being (nature - living or inanimate, the mental organization of a person, etc.), the subject of philosophy is the laws and structure of the world in
as a whole, laws that are characteristic not only for a part, but for the whole. Philosophy is based in its research on the data of particular sciences, philosophy serves as a methodology for particular sciences.
4. Specific features of philosophical knowledge:
The main specificity of philosophical knowledge, as already noted, lies in its duality, since it has a lot in common with scientific knowledge (subject, methods, logical and conceptual apparatus), but at the same time it is not scientific knowledge in its purest form; - the main difference between philosophy and all other sciences is
the fact that philosophy is a theoretical worldview, the ultimate generalization of knowledge previously accumulated by mankind; - the subject of philosophy is wider than the subject of study of any individual science, philosophy generalizes, integrates other sciences, but does not absorb them, does not include all-scientific knowledge, does not stand above
him; - has a complex structure (includes ontology, epistemology, logic, etc.) - is extremely general, theoretical in nature; - contains the basic, fundamental ideas that underlie other sciences;
Largely subjective - bears the imprint of the personality and worldview of individual philosophers;
It is a set of objective knowledge, values, moral ideals of its time, is influenced by the era; - studies not only the subject of knowledge, but also the mechanism of
knowledge; - has the quality of reflection - the focus of thought on itself);
Is strongly influenced by the doctrines developed by
former philosophers.
5. Functions of philosophy:
1. Worldview- contributes to the formation of the integrity of the picture of the world, ideas about its structure, the place of a person in it, the principles of interaction with the outside world;
2. Methodological- lies in the fact that philosophy develops the main methods of cognition of the environment
reality;
3. Gnoseological- aims at correct and reliable knowledge of the surrounding reality;
4. Critical- to question the surrounding world and existing knowledge, to look for their new features, qualities, to reveal contradictions. The ultimate goal of this function is to expand the boundaries of knowledge, the destruction of dogmas, the ossification of knowledge, its modernization, and the increase in the reliability of knowledge;
5. Axiological- consists in evaluating things, phenomena of the surrounding world from the point of view of various values - moral, social, ideological, etc. The purpose of this function is to be a "sieve" through which to pass everything necessary, valuable and useful and discard the inhibitory and obsolete;
6. Social– explain society, the causes of its emergence, evolution, current state, its structure,
elements, driving forces; reveal contradictions, indicate ways to eliminate or mitigate them. Improvement of society;
7. Educational and humanitarian - spread humanistic values and ideals, instill them in people and societies, help strengthen morality, help a person adapt to the world around him and find the meaning of life;
8. Predictive - is to predict development trends, the future of matter, consciousness, cognitive processes, man, nature and society on the basis of existing philosophical knowledge about the world and man, the achievements of knowledge.
Basic Methods of Philosophy – these are the ways and means by which philosophical inquiry is carried out:
· Dialectics is a method of philosophical research, in which things, phenomena are considered critically and
consistently, taking into account their internal contradictions, changes, development, causes and effects, unity and struggle of opposites.
· Metaphysics- a method opposite to dialectics, in which objects are considered apart like on their own.
6. The main question of philosophy. Each philosophical theory has a pivotal, main question around which the whole system is built. So, for the Milesian school, this is a question about the origin of being, for Socrates
- the problem of man, for the philosophers of the New Age - the search for a universal method of cognition, etc. However, there is not a single philosophical system that would not answer the question of whether what comes first: spirit or matter, ideal or material? It is this question that is the main thing for philosophy, it forms the basis of any philosophical construction. Depending on the answer to it, such major philosophical
directions like materialism and idealism. According to materialism matter is eternal, independent,
indestructible and primary - the source of all things; exists and develops according to its own laws, consciousness and the ideal are secondary, determined by the material. The virtue of materialism
reliance on science, logical provability of many provisions. The weak side is an insufficient explanation of the essence of consciousness (its origin, first of all) and everything ideal.
Types of materialism:
· Dialectical materialism- represents the organic unity of materialism and dialectics. Eternal and infinite matter is in constant motion and development, which takes place according to
the laws of dialectics.
· Vulgar materialism- reduces the ideal to the material, consciousness identifies with matter - matter produces consciousness as "liver bile".
· Objective idealism proclaims the independence of the ideal beginning not only from matter (Plato, Thomas Aquinas, Hegel).
· Subjective idealism claims dependency outside world, its properties and relations from human consciousness (J. Berkeley).
Topic 2 Philosophy of the ancient world and the Middle Ages
1. Antique philosophy of the pre-Socratic period. The search for the origin of being.
2. The classical period of ancient philosophy. Sophists. Ethical rationalism of Socrates.
3. Plato's objective idealism.
4. Philosophical ideas Aristotle.
5. Main features and stages of medieval philosophy.
6. Patristics: Augustine the Blessed. Scholasticism: Thomas Aquinas.
7.Main directions and problems of the philosophy of the Renaissance.
1. Ancient philosophy of the pre-Socratic period. The search for the origin of being.
Ancient philosophy arose in the Greek city-states (“polises”). Having experienced a period of brilliant
heyday in the U1-U centuries. BC. it continued to develop in the era of Alexander the Great and the Roman Empire until the beginning of the 11th century. AD Periods of ancient philosophy:
1) naturalistic(problems of space and the search for the origin of being) - Milesian school, Pythagoreans, Eleatics, eclectic physicists.
2) humanistic or classical (sophists, Socrates) - they tried to define the essence and the person, the questions of happiness, freedom, morality were considered.
3) period big synthesis Plato and Aristotle - the discovery of ideal being, the formulation of the main philosophical problems, the construction of the first large metaphysical systems.
4) Hellenistic schools the era of the conquests of Alexander the Great and until the end of the pagan era - enemas, epicureanism, stoicism, skepticism. First Milesian Philosopher Thales believed that everything that exists arose from a wet primary substance or water. Anaximenes air is the primary substance. It is the air that is characterized by the process of rarefaction and condensation, due to which all substances are formed from it. When rarefied, the air becomes fire; when condensed, it successively turns into water, earth, stones, depending on the degree of condensation.
2. The classical period of ancient philosophy. Sophists. Ethical rationalism of Socrates.Sophists. Representatives: Protagoras and others. Sophists are paid teachers of eloquence and argument. Deftly and skillfully manipulating words and arguments, they could prove the false and disprove the true. They were not interested in truth, but in methods of proof and refutation. Sophists neglected the law, morality, customs, not recognizing the objectivity of the criterion of good and evil. The Sophist Relativism Manifesto is a famous saying
Protagora: " Man is the measure of all things existing, that they exist, and non-existing, that they exist. Morality is something that is beneficial to society and invented by it. Benefit - generally something that is beneficial to someone. There is nothing absolute, everything is relative - both knowledge and morality.
Socrates for the first time put the problem at the center of philosophy person. He left no significant philosophical works. He expounded his teaching in the form of an open conversation (dialogue), the topics of which were issues relevant at all times: good, evil, love, happiness, honesty, etc.
Philosophy in the understanding of Socrates is not the study of nature, but the doctrine of how one should live. Socrates opposes the early physicists. A person can only know what is in his power. This is not the outside world, but his
own soul. Therefore, the main task of knowledge is self-knowledge, and the principle of philosophy is “ Know yourself". Morality, according to Socrates, is a consequence of knowledge. The task of philosophy is to help a person come to a correct understanding - a concept - of an object or phenomenon (what is courage, love, etc.).
3. Plato's objective idealism.
Plato is considered the first ancient Greek philosopher who created an integral philosophical system that combined ontology, epistemology and anthropology. The philosophical doctrine of Plato embraces a wide
a range of questions: about being, about the world and its origin, about the soul and knowledge, about society, etc. Plato understands philosophy as the doctrine of being, that which is constant in the surrounding world. The world of sensible things is impermanent and changeable: material things arise and perish, change and move, there is nothing in them.
solid and true. An idea is the essence of an object, separated from it, “taken out” from human consciousness and
placed in some ideal world, where all the ideas of all objects are collected. Any material thing is only a material reflection of the idea of this thing. For example, horses are born and die, but they are only the embodiment of the idea of a horse, which is eternal and unchanging. Idea– sample, model, according to which they are created,
items are copied. social philosophy. Plato is the first philosopher to create a social utopia. He was interested in the conditions for the emergence and construction of a just - ideal state. To all
existing he treated negatively.
4. Philosophical ideas of Aristotle.
Plato's Disciple Aristotle
criticized his teacher. Plato's mistake, from his point of view, was that he tore off the "world of ideas" from the real world. The essence of the subject in itself subject, not outside of it. There is no world of "pure ideas"; there are only single and concretely defined objects. The essence of the object and its cause lies in the form, which is inseparable from the thing. . Form is the key concept of Aristotle. It is the form that makes the object what it is. A bronze ball and a bronze statue are one in matter, but different in form. Matter is the possibility of being, and form is the realization of this possibility, reality.
Being, according to Aristotle, is hierarchical and is expressed in the hierarchy of forms. Climbing the ladder of forms, the significance of matter weakens, and forms increase. The form of inanimate objects - plant form - animal - form (soul) of a person - God (as a pure form freed from matter in general). God of Aristotle
the perfect Mind, the source of all movement, is the Prime Mover, although it itself is motionless, eternal, has no history, is passionless and does not take part in the affairs of people. God is like absolute perfection, that target, final cause that attracts the whole world to itself.
Ethics. Target human life – happiness(this is a common setting for ancient philosophy. Happiness, according to Aristotle, is not in material wealth, not in pleasure, and not in any virtue,
but in rational activity in accordance with virtue.
5.Main features and stages of medieval philosophy.
The beginning of the birth - the Roman Empire in the 1st century. AD on the basis of early Christianity, heresies and ancient philosophy; reached its peak in the V-X111 centuries. AD (between the collapse of Western
Roman Empire and the beginning of the Renaissance. Representatives: St. Augustine, Thomas Aquinas and others.
Main features:
1. Theocentrism (the main cause of everything that exists, the highest reality and the subject of philosophical research is God)
2. The task of philosophy is the interpretation of Holy Scripture (“ philosophy is the servant of theology").
3. The study of space, nature, phenomena of the surrounding world is relegated to the background
4. Man is considered as a dual being: on the one hand, bearing the divine image, as a creation of God (freedom, creativity, beauty, love); on the other hand as sinful. It is man who is responsible for the fall of the whole world. The main stages of medieval philosophy:
1. patristics
The task is to develop the basic tenets of Christian theology. The holy fathers rely on their writings
on ancient philosophers especially Plato and Aristotle.
2. scholasticism The main provisions of Christian theology are specified and systematized.
Scholasticism means "school, educational" philosophy taught in universities and schools. During this period, the influence of Aristotle is strong.
5. Patristika: Augustine the Blessed. Scholasticism: Thomas Aquinas.
Augustine the Blessed , (strong influence of Plato). God is the supreme being. In God dwell the eternal and unchanging truths that determine the order of the world. God created the world out of nothing out of his own free will, not out of necessity. The world is not homogeneous, it is a continuous creature ladder, ascending to the creator of the world. A special place on this ladder is occupied by a person - a small world, a “microcosm”. He combines
the nature of material bodies - plants and animals, has in addition a rational soul and free will. The soul is immaterial, immortal and free in its decisions. Liberty this is expressed in the possibility choice between good and evil. Evil is the lack of good. Evil is rooted in human nature. God did not create evil, He is the creator
harmony of goodness, grace and love. A person himself chooses the path to goodness and salvation of the soul or death - evil. Subjectively, a person acts freely, but everything that he does, God does through him. To his eternal
By decision, God chose some people for salvation and bliss in the future life, others for condemnation to eternal torment in hell. This is the essence of the idea divine predestination, put forward by Augustine and subsequently adopted by Catholicism.
Thomas Aquinas (X1U century) He spoke out against the widespread position in Christian theology about the opposition of spirit and nature, which led to the denial of earthly life and everything connected with it
(“the spirit is everything, the body is nothing” - the legacy of Plato). Thomas argued that a person must be studied as a whole, in the unity of soul and body. “A corpse (body) is not a person, but a ghost (spirit) is also not a person.” A person is a person in the unity of soul and body, and a person is the most main value. Nature is not evil, but good. God created nature and is reflected in it, just as in man. Gotta live in the real world
unity with nature to strive for earthly (and not only) heavenly bliss.
Thomas Aquinas put forward 5 evidence the existence of God:
1. movement: everything that moves is set in motion by something (someone) else - therefore, there is the prime mover of everything - God;
2. reason: everything that exists. It has a reason, therefore there is the root cause of everything - God;
3. chance and necessity: the chance depends on the necessary - therefore, there is an initial necessity - God;
4. degrees of quality: everything that exists has different degrees of quality (better, narrower, more, less, etc.) - therefore, there must be a higher perfection - God;
5. goal: everything in the surrounding world has a goal, is directed towards a goal, makes sense - it means that there is some kind of rational principle that directs everything to a goal, gives meaning to everything - God.
7. The main directions and problems of the philosophy of the Renaissance (Х1У-ХУ1 centuries)
Representatives: Leonardo Da Vinci, Michelangelo, Nicolo Machiavelli, Thomas More, Nicholas of Cusa.
Directions: humanistic, natural-philosophical, neoplatonic and socio-political.
The Renaissance for the most advanced countries of Europe is the time of the birth of capitalist relations, the formation of national states and absolute monarchies, deep social and religious conflicts, the rapid development of natural science and great geographical discoveries. The very name of the era speaks of rebirth. interest in ancient philosophy and culture, in which they begin to see a model for modernity. The ideal of knowledge is not religious, but secular. There is a turn from the problems of religion to man and nature.
Philosophical thought is opposed to the Catholic ideology. However, there is no atheism here. It is not Christianity and God that are denied, but dissatisfaction with the activities of the Church, which manifests excessive dominance and greed in society, is expressed. Many provisions of Christian theology are being rethought, including the place and
the position of man in the world. If in medieval philosophy a person is considered primarily from the sinful side (he is guilty of the fall of both himself and the world, apostasy from God - all the evil of the world is on him!), then in the Renaissance, emphasis is placed on his godlikeness. Reason, creativity, beauty, freedom - these features are not inherent in a person by themselves, they are a reflection of God in him. Here is not a dark, but a light perception of a person within one Christian tradition.
The main feature of the philosophy of the Renaissance is anthropocentrism has deep Christian roots. Human
praised and exalted to the utmost - he is the pinnacle of the universe, called to freedom, creativity, glory, bliss, not only in the afterlife, but also in this earthly one. Moreover, it is earthly concerns that constitute the first duty of man. It is here (in work, creativity, love) that he must realize himself. In this turn to earthly life and its glorification, there is a fundamental difference from medieval
anthropology. The understanding of God is also changing. The dualistic one, which opposes God and nature, is being replaced by pantheistic life picture, in which God and nature are identified. The God of Renaissance philosophy is deprived of freedom, he does not create the world “out of nothing, he is “co-eternal with the world” and merges with the law of natural necessity. And nature from a servant and creation of God turns into a deified, that is, endowed with all the necessary forces for self-creation and development, the origin of things (Giordano Bruno).
Thus, there is new system values, where man and nature come first, not God and his rationale. Hence another feature of the Renaissance culture and philosophy - " secularization"- liberation from church influence. The problems of the state, morality, science are no longer considered through the prism of theology. These areas of being acquire independent existence, the laws of which must be studied by secular sciences.
reconstruction (Copernicus, Galileo Galilei, Kepler). Renaissance thinkers do not analyze concepts (as the scholastics did), but try to understand the phenomena of nature and society themselves, relying on experience and reason, and not on intuition and revelation.
State autonomous educational institution of secondary vocational education
Novosibirsk region
NOVOSIBIRSK MEDICAL COLLEGE
Abstract of lectures for students on the course "Fundamentals of Philosophy".
Developed by: Mikichur E.A.
Novosibirsk 2012
Explanatory note …………………………………….page 3
Outline of lecture 1 “The nature of philosophical knowledge and the tasks of philosophy”……..p.4-8
Outline of lecture 2 "Philosophy as a doctrine of man" .... pp. 8-10
Outline of lecture 3 "Philosophy as a doctrine of man, society and nature" .... pp. 10-12
Outline of lecture 4 "Philosophy as a doctrine of being and consciousness" .... pp. 12-15
Outline of lecture 5 "Philosophy as a theory of knowledge, scientific knowledge" .... pp. 15-19
Explanatory note.
The abstract of lectures was compiled in accordance with the requirements of the federal state educational standard for the discipline "Fundamentals of Philosophy" for secondary specialized educational institutions and the work program developed by Mikichur EA. on the basis of a standard program for this discipline.
The purpose of the work is to acquaint students with basic philosophical concepts, to promote the formation of skills in theoretical analysis of the problems facing society and man in the modern world.
Outline of the lecture 1. The nature of philosophical knowledge and the tasks of philosophy.
The main questions of the lecture:
1. Definition of philosophy.
2. Philosophy and worldview.
3. Philosophy and science
4. Specific features of philosophical knowledge.
5. Subject and methods of philosophy.
6. The structure of philosophy.
7. Functions of philosophy.
1. Origin and subject matter of philosophy.
The word "philosophy" in translation from the ancient Greek language means "love of wisdom." For the first time this term was used by the ancient Greek scientist Pythagoras (about 580-500 BC). However, this does not mean that philosophy is a purely ancient Greek "invention". Philosophy arose in 800-600. BC. both in the West (Mediterranean, Greek culture) and in the East (India, China).
Philosophy is the doctrine of the world as a whole, of its essence and the general laws of its being and cognition .
Philosophy as a system of understanding of the world arose from the need of people for a generalized and holistic view of the surrounding world, its most general properties and structural characteristics.
There is no generally accepted definition of philosophy, as well as a generally accepted idea of the subject of philosophy. There have been many different types of philosophy throughout history, differing both in their subject matter and in their methods. In the most general way, under Philosophy is understood as an activity aimed at searching for and finding the universal foundations of being and value orientations of a person.
2. Philosophy and worldview.
outlook- this is a system of general views of a person on the world and his place in this world, a set of life principles and ideals. As a complex spiritual phenomenon, it includes: beliefs, ideals, goals, behavioral motives, interests, value orientations, principles of cognition, moral norms, aesthetic views and etc.
The worldview is formed not only by philosophy, but also by scientific (natural, technical, social) disciplines, as well as various forms of social consciousness - political, religious, etc. However, only philosophy, which integrally unites and generalizes all ideological attitudes that are formed in the mind of a person from various sources.
Three main forms of worldview: mythology, religion, philosophy.
mythology - historically the first form of worldview. outlook ancient society, containing both fantastic and realistic perception of the surrounding reality. In myths, the rudiments of knowledge, elements of beliefs, ethical attitudes, conjectures, and fictions are connected.
The main features of the myth: humanization and animation of nature; the indivisibility of the world, the non-isolation of man from the Cosmos; the presence of fantastic gods, their active and direct interaction with man; lack of reflection - abstract reflections; the practical orientation of the myth to the solution of specific problems (economy, protection from the elements, diseases, etc.); emotional-figurative form of expression; descriptive character.
Religion. It is defined as the belief in the existence of supernatural forces (gods) that affect human life and the world around us. In many respects it is similar to mythology (the presence of gods and emotionally figurative unsubstantiated perception of reality): it includes myths. However, religion is characterized by the presence of a strict dogma (an individual picture of being and a system of dogmas for each of the religions), a rigid religious organization and an obligatory religious cult (rites and traditions). It is more obligatory and systematic than mythology.
Philosophy. This is a theoretically formalized, system-rational worldview. Philosophy, unlike mythology and religion, is based not on conjecture, fiction and faith, but on reason. It builds a rational picture of being, uses a conceptual apparatus, strives for systematicity and internal unity, tries to find laws and general principles of being, and takes shape in the form of a theory (that is, it relies on evidence to substantiate its provisions).
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WELL LECTURES
ON THE FOUNDATIONS OF PHILOSOPHY
The textbook in 2 parts in the form of a course of lectures on the discipline "Fundamentals of Philosophy" is intended for students and teachers of secondary specialized educational institutions, for all forms of education. It is compiled in accordance with the curriculum of the course and takes into account the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard of Secondary Vocational Education in many medical specialties. The manual can be used in self-preparation for classes, exams, as well as in preparation for working off a missed lesson on a particular topic.
The material in the lectures is grouped by topic. The lectures contain a plan, summary questions and tasks for self-examination.
Lectures reveal the essence and analysis of philosophical categories, their main properties and interrelation.
Working on a course of lectures on the discipline "Fundamentals of Philosophy", she sought to more fully reveal the content of philosophical thought in its historical development, to consider its topical problems in the spirit of modernity.
The lectures are composed taking into account the rejection of the ideological approach to equipping the views of thinkers, to the analysis of philosophical problems.
Life has shown that different philosophical views often complement each other, contribute to a comprehensive, in-depth consideration of scientific issues. This is the basis of creative pluralism, which has nothing to do with the mechanical combination of heterogeneous concepts and approaches in the study of the phenomena of reality.
The lectures combine historical-philosophical and problematic presentation of the material using interesting facts from the field of recent achievements in the natural and social sciences, are presented scientific points vision.
The course "Fundamentals of Philosophy" is aimed at developing students' thinking, at developing their own life position and worldview.
Lectures on the discipline "Fundamentals of Philosophy" are written with the aim of forming students' ideas about philosophy as a specific field of knowledge, about philosophical, religious and scientific pictures world, about the nature and essence of man, about the phenomenon of consciousness, about the levels and forms of knowledge, about society and civilization.
LECTURE№ 1
Philosophy, its place and role in the life of society
Plan:
1. Philosophy and worldview.
2. Forms of spiritual development of the world: myth, religion, science and philosophy.
3. The subject of philosophy.
4. The main question of philosophy.
5. The main sections and functions of philosophy.
6. Philosophy as a methodology.
7. Philosophy and science.
1. Philosophy and worldview
Every philosophy is worldview, i.e. a set of the most general views on the world and the place of man in it. However, this does not mean at all that any worldview is also a philosophy. The concept of "worldview" is broader than the concept of "philosophy". This means that the first includes the second. Just as the concept of “fruit” implies, for example, not only an apple, but also a pear, cherry, etc., so the concept of “worldview” cannot be reduced only to philosophy. It includes other worldviews - mythological, artistic, religious, etc., thus, philosophy is youWithshi level and type worldview, this is a theoretically designed, system-rational worldview. It is, by its very essence, designed to reveal the rational meaning and universal laws of the existence and development of the world and man.
2. Forms of spiritual development of the world:myth, religion, science and philosophy
Historically, the first form of worldview is mythology. The word mythology is of Greek origin - "the science of myths". She explores how myths arose, how they have changed over time, compares myths different peoples earth. But the word mythology has another meaning. Mythology is a collection of myths of a particular people. A significant part of the mythology was cosmological myths dedicated to the structure of nature. At the same time, much attention in the myths was paid to the various stages of people's lives, the secrets of birth and death, all kinds of trials that lie in wait for a person on his life path. A special place is occupied by myths about the achievements of people: making fire (the myth of Prometheus), the invention of crafts, the development of agriculture, the domestication of wild animals.
Thus, myth- this is a fantastic reflection in the primitive consciousness of reality and the justification of the relations, attitudes, beliefs and behavior existing in society.
The main function of the myth- explain the world order and regulate the existing social relations.
At an early stage of human history, mythology was not the only ideological form. On the basis of it 3000 years ago, the existing and still existing ancient religions- Buddhism, Judaism, whose homeland was India and Palestine. At the initial stage of the development of society, their content largely coincides, but religion has its own specifics. It manifests itself in the presence of a system of ritual actions, church institutions aimed at establishing certain relations with the supernatural.
Thus, religion is certain views and ideas of people associated with belief in
supernatural, corresponding rites and cultures.
Science originated in antiquity, and became the most important factor in life in modern times. The science- this is a human activity in the development, systematization and testing of knowledge.
Depending on the conditions for the development of science and the demand for it, its place changed in certain epochs. So, ancient science relied on the experience of mathematical and astronomical research and had practical applications in agriculture, construction, etc. (like the Egyptian pyramids). During the Renaissance heightened interest in human problems contributed to the development of the humanities. A new stage in the development of science is associated with the emergence of natural science. The beginning that I laid
N. Copernicus.
For the first time, science challenged religion's right to undividedly determine the formation of a worldview.
The next form of social consciousness is philosophy.
In the understanding of philosophy, extremes were often allowed: Aristotle believed that philosophy is the "mother of sciences." Hegel declared her the queen of all sciences. In the middle of the century, philosophy was given the place of the "servant of theology."
Philosophy is a special spiritual area, the "middle ground" between science and religion.
Philosophy is a special attitude, a special attitude to the world, a special way of life.
Philosophy is the doctrine of the methods of cognition that all sciences use.
Thus, from the fact of the existence of many definitions of philosophy, we can conclude that the complexity and versatility of the content of philosophical knowledge. Summarizing the various points of view, we can formulate the following definition of philosophy.
Philosophy- this is the science of the most general laws of the development of nature, society, man and thinking, allowing us to give a picture of the world as a whole.
3. The subject of philosophy
Philosophy originated about 2.5 thousand years ago in the countries ancient world- India, China, Egypt, and reached its classical form in ancient Greece.
The concept of philosophy arose in Ancient Greece at the end of the 6th - beginning of the 5th century BC. and means “love of wisdom” (“phileo” is translated as love, and “sophia” is wisdom). The first to use this word was the ancient Greek mathematician Pythagoras, who was asked if he was a sage, the answer was modest: "I am not a sage, but a lover of wisdom." Plato called philosophy a science. Philosophy occupies a special place among other sciences, it is interested in all available knowledge and builds a system of knowledge about the world as a whole and about the relationship of man to it.
The subject of philosophy are universal properties and connections (relationships) inherent in both objective reality and the subjective world of man.
Philosophy considers the following fundamental problems:
· problems of the origin and existence of the world, nature, the universe;
the origin and essence of man, his place in the universe;
· the problem of spiritual values and their relationship with the world of reality;
· the problem of good and evil, freedom and responsibility, duty, justice and the creation by a person of a certain model of behavior;
· the problem of the laws of development of society, the historical process;
· the problem of formation and development of philosophy.
Philosophy is the theoretical basis of the worldview.
outlook is a generalized system of a person's views on the world as a whole, on his own place in it. The worldview can be religious or atheistic, idealistic or materialistic.
Idealism- a philosophical worldview, recognizing the spiritual principle, the idea as the basis of the world.
Idealism and materialism do not contradict each other, they are interrelated aspects of a single process of development of philosophical knowledge.
4. The main question of philosophy
Philosophy as an established system of knowledge has a number of specific issues that it is designed to solve. We have already encountered one of these questions - this is the question "what is philosophy?". Depending on his decision, the philosopher creates his own concept, defines specific problems and uses certain categories to reveal it. Each philosophical system has a core, main question, the disclosure of which is its main content and essence. So, for ancient philosophers, this is a question about the fundamental principles of everything that exists, for Socrates it was associated with the principle of "know thyself", for philosophers of the New Age - how knowledge is possible, for modern positivism - what is the essence of the "logic of scientific discovery", etc.
But there are general questions that reveal the nature of philosophical thinking. First of all, among them should be mentioned the question of whether what comes first: spirit or matter, idephysical or material? Depends on his decision common understanding of being, for the material and the ideal are its ultimate characteristics. In other words, apart from the material and ideal, there is simply nothing in being. In addition, depending on its decision, such major philosophical trends as materialism And idealism. A number of categories and principles are formulated that contribute to the disclosure of philosophy as a general methodology of knowledge.
Let us dwell in more detail on the question of materialism and idealism.
The division into these areas existed from the very beginning of the development of philosophy. German philosopher of the 17th-18th centuries. Leibniz called Epicurus the greatest materialist, Plato the greatest idealist. The classical definition of both directions was first given by the prominent German philosopher F. Hegel " Materialism,- he wrote, - he explains everything from matter, accepts matter as something first primordial, as the source of all things ... Idealism everything derives from one spirit, explains the emergence of matter from the spirit, or subordinates matter to it. Thus, the philosophical meaning of the concepts "materialist" and "idealist" should not be confused with that which is often given to them in ordinary consciousness, when a materialist means an individual striving only to achieve wealth, and the idealist is associated with a selfless person, characterized by lofty spiritual values and ideals.
Both materialism and idealism are heterogeneous in their concrete manifestations. In accordance with this, various forms of materialism and idealism can be distinguished. Thus, from the point of view of the historical development of materialism, the following main forms of materialism can be noted. Materialism of the Ancient East And Ancient Greece- this is the original form of materialism, in which objects and the surrounding world are considered on their own, regardless of consciousness, as consisting of material formations and elements (Thales, Leucippus, Democritus, Heraclitus, etc.). Metaphysical (mechanistic) motherAism of the New time in Europe. It is based on the study of nature. However, all the diversity of its properties and relations is reduced to the mechanical form of the motion of matter (G. Galileo, F. Bacon, J. Locke, J. La Mettrie, C. Helvetius, etc.). Dialectical materealism, in which materialism and dialectics are presented in an organic unity (K. Marx, F. Engels and others).
There are also such varieties of materialism as, for example, serial mAterialism, within which the principle of materialism extends to both nature and society (Marxism), and inconsistent materialism in which there is no materialistic understanding of society and history (L. Feuerbach).
A specific form of inconsistent materialism is deism (from Latin dues - god), whose representatives, although they recognized God, sharply belittled his functions, reducing them to the creation of matter and giving it the initial impulse of movement (F. Bacon, J. Toland, B Franklin, M.V. Lomonosov and others). Next, distinguish scientific And vulgaRmaterialism. The latter, in particular, reduces the ideal to the material, identifies consciousness with matter (Vogt, Moleschott, Buechner).
Like materialism, idealism is also heterogeneous. First of all, two main varieties should be distinguished: objective idealism And subjective idealism. The first proclaims the independence of the idea, god, spirit - in general, the ideal principle, not only from matter, but also from human consciousness (Plato, F. Aquinas, Hegel).
The second is characterized by the fact that it asserts the dependence of the external world, its properties and relations on human consciousness (J. Berkeley). The extreme form of subjective idealism is solipsism(from lat. solus - one, only and ipse - himself). According to the latter, one can only speak of the existence of my own I and my sensations.
Within the framework of these forms of idealism, there are various varieties of it. We note in particular rationalism And irrationalism. According to idealistic rationalism, the basis of all that exists and its knowledge is the mind. One of its most important areas is pangolism(from the Greek pan - everything and logos - mind), according to which everything real is the embodiment of mind, and the laws of being are determined by the laws of logic (Hegel). Point of view irrationalism(from lati. Irrationalis - unreasonable, unconscious) consists in denying the possibility of rational and logical knowledge of reality. instinct, faith, revelation, etc. are recognized here as the main type of knowledge, and being itself is considered as irrational (S. Kierkegaard, A. Bergson, M. Heidegger, etc.).
For an adequate understanding of the specifics of philosophical knowledge, it is also necessary to raise the question on the relationship and nature of the interaction of materialism and idealism. In particular, two extreme points of view should be avoided here. One of them is that there is a constant “struggle” between materialism and idealism, the “Democritus line” and the “Plato line” throughout the history of philosophy. According to the other, “the history of philosophy was essentially not history at all. fight materialism versus idealism…”. In our opinion, such a "struggle", and quite conscious, certainly took place in the history of philosophy. It is enough to recall the opposition of materialism and idealism in the ancient period or the militant idealism of Berkeley in modern times, or, finally, one can pay attention to the position of "militant materialism" in our century. But at the same time, this "struggle" should not be absolutized and should not be assumed that it always and everywhere determines the development of philosophy. Pointing out the complexity of the relationship between materialism and idealism, the famous Russian philosopher V.V. Sokolov writes: “Such a difficulty lies in the fact that materialism and idealism by no means always constituted two “mutually impenetrable camps”, and in the solution of some issues they touched and even crossed.” An example of the conjugation of materialism and idealism is the position of deism. It is no coincidence that thinkers of both materialistic (F. Bacon, J. Locke), and idealistic (G. Leibniz), and dualistic (R. Descartes) directions adjoined deism. But even more clearly the unity of the positions of materialism and idealism is revealed in the solution of the question of the cognizability of the world. Thus, agnostics and skeptics were both in the camp of materialism (Democritus) and idealism (Kant), and the principle of the cognizability of the world was defended not only by materialists (Marxism), but also by idealists (Hegel).
The question of primordial being is also connected with the question of monism, dualism and pluralism. Monism(from the Greek monus - one, only) - a philosophical concept, according to which the world has one beginning. This beginning is a material or spiritual substance. It follows that monism can, respectively, be of two types - mothersAleafy And idealistic. The first deduces the ideal from the material. His conclusions are based on natural science data. According to the second, the material is conditioned by the ideal, the spiritual. He is faced with the problem of proving the creation of the world by the spirit (consciousness, idea, god), which, within the framework of modern science cannot be positively resolved.
Dualism- (from lat. dualis - dual) - philosophy, which affirms the equality of the two principles: matter and consciousness, physical and mental. So, for example, R. Descartes believed that two equal substances lie in the basis of being: thinking (spirit) and extended (matter).
Pluralism(from lat. pluralis - plural) - suggests several or many initial bases. It is based on the assertion of the plurality of foundations and beginnings of being. An example here is the theories of ancient thinkers, who put forward such diverse principles as earth, water, air, fire, etc. as the basis of all things.
The question of the origins of everything that exists is joined by the question of the cognizability of the world, or of the identity of thinking and being. Some thinkers believed that the question of the truth of knowledge cannot be finally resolved, and moreover, the world is fundamentally unknowable. They were called agnostics (Protagoras, Kant), and the philosophical position they represent is agnosticism (from the Greek agnostos - unknowable). a negative answer to this question was also given by representatives of a direction related to agnosticism - skepticism, who denied the possibility of reliable knowledge. He found his highest manifestation in some representatives of the ancient Greek philosophy(Pyrrho and others). Other thinkers, on the contrary, believe in the strength and power of reason and knowledge and affirm the ability of a person to receive reliable knowledge, objective truth.
5. Main sections and functions of philosophy
1. Ontology- the doctrine of being, its structure and development
2. Anthropology- the doctrine of the nature and essence of man
3. Axiology- the doctrine of spiritual values and their relationship with the real world.
4. Ethics- the doctrine of moral values and moral principles
5. Epistemology- the doctrine of knowledge
6. Sociology- the doctrine of the origin and development of human society
7. History of philosophy- the doctrine of the origin and development of philosophy
Philosophy performs the following main features:
1. Worldview function- is to present the world as a whole,
give an overall picture of the world.
2. Gnoseological function- consists in solving the problem of the cognizability of the world by man, the problem of truth and its criteria.
3. Methodological function- consists in the development of general, substantiation of private and general scientific methods of cognition.
4. Axiological function- is expressed in its orientation to certain values.
5. Integrating function- consists in generalizing the conclusions of special sciences, combining them on the basis of their categories and methods of cognition.
6. Critical function- Critically assesses everything that corresponds to a particular philosophical system.
The Purpose of Philosophy- take a person out of the sphere of everyday life, captivate him with the highest ideals, give his life a true meaning, open the way to the most perfect values.
Purpose of philosophy consists in the elevation of man, in the provision of universal conditions for his perfection. We can say that philosophy is nothing more than a strategy of life - the doctrine of "what one must be in order to be a person."
6. Philosophy as methodology
Every science has its own method. However, philosophy acts as the most general methodology, and this is the essence of its own method. It can be said that philosophical metod(from the Greek. methodos - the path of knowledge) is a system of the most general methods of theoretical and practical development of reality, as well as a way to build and justify the system of philosophical knowledge itself. Like the methods of other sciences, it originates in the practical activities of people and in its source is a reflection of the logic and laws of the development of objective reality. This applies, of course, only to a philosophy based on science.
The philosophical method sets the general principles of research and, according to F. Bacon, is comparable to a torch that illuminates the path. However, various philosophical schools and trends, in accordance with their specificity and understanding of the subject of philosophy, formulate and use various philosophical methods. Pluralism philosophical concepts the pluralism of methods also corresponds. What is common to all of them is theoretical thinking, expressed in philosophical categories, principles and laws.
Turning to a more concrete consideration of the question of the methods of philosophy, we should first of all point to mAmaterialism And idealism. Their content was discussed above. In this aspect, attention should be paid to the fact that they act as the most general approaches and methods of consideration and cognition. From the very beginning, the theory of knowledge is largely determined by what is taken as primary: matter or consciousness, spirit or nature, i.e. materialistic or idealistic prerequisites. In the first case, the general process of cognition is regarded as a reflection of objective reality in consciousness; in the second - as self-knowledge of consciousness, the absolute idea, initially present in things (objective idealism), or as an analysis of our own sensations (subjective idealism). In other words, ontology largely determines epistemology.
The next aspect of the differentiation of philosophical methods is dialectics And metaphysics. By dialectics they mean, first of all, the doctrine of the most general patterns of development of being and cognition, at the same time it also acts as a general method of mastering reality. Although this understanding was not always her. The origin and beginning of the formation of dialectics is associated with the period of antiquity. This stage is often described as stAndhellish, or naive, dialectics, bearing in mind, first of all, that the views of the first philosophers on the world were largely naive. But at the same time they viewed it impartially, in development and movement. However, it should be noted that even then a different understanding of dialectics was revealed.
Thus, the materialist Heraclitus in his teaching draws attention to the constant movement and change of the world, to the mutual transition of opposites in it, i.e. primarily on the "dialectics of things", on objective dialectics. The idealists Socrates and Plato, who lived in the same period, understood dialectics as the art of arguing, dialogue in order to clarify concepts and achieve truth. Here we are talking about the "dialectic of concepts" about subjeTotive differentialAlectures.
Thus, dialectics is in principle compatible with both materialism and idealism. In the first case, it acts as materealistic dialectic, in the second - as idealistic dialectic. The classic representative of idealistic dialectics (as well as dialectical idealism) is G.W.F. Hegel, who created the system of dialectics as a theory and method of cognition. And the classics of materialistic dialectics (as well as dialectical materialism) are K. Marx and F. Engels, who gave it a holistic and scientific character.
Dialectics arose and developed along with metaphysics as an opposite way of thinking and cognition. Its peculiarity is the tendency to create an unambiguous, static picture of the world, the desire for absolutization and isolated consideration of certain moments or fragments of being. The metaphysical method is characterized by the fact that it considers objects and processes according to one principle: either yes or no; either white or black; either friend or foe, etc. In social practice, this corresponds to the well-known slogan: "He who is not with us is against us." When considering movement, metaphysics tends to reduce its manifold forms to a single one. Moreover, the reduction of the highest form of motion of matter to the lowest is more often observed. Thus, for example, the materialism of modern times was characterized by the reduction of various forms of motion of matter to mechanical. That's why he got the name mechanistic materialism, which, in turn, is a manifestation of metaphysical materialism.
It should be noted, however, that the method of cognition itself, which involves the consideration of objects and phenomena in statics, at rest, and thereby the “coarseness”, “simplification” of being in constant change, has every right to exist. The method of abstraction that is used here is quite scientific and is used by various disciplines. And if movement is not forgotten behind peace, dynamics behind statics, and a forest behind trees, then such an element of metaphysics is simply necessary in cognition, because it acts as a necessary moment of dialectical cognition. a methodological error arises when this moment of rest or any one characteristic, side of the subject of research breaks out of the universal interconnection and interdependence and is elevated to the absolute. Incidentally, this is the epistemological roots of all one-sided theoretical concepts. Their essence is that the ideal factor (thought, consciousness, idea) is separated from the material, absolutized and opposed to the material as an absolutely autonomous demiurge (creator) of being. At the same time, it is forgotten that, in the end, thinking, the ideal, arises on the basis of the material.
It should be noted, however, that not only the absolutization of rest is a disservice to cognition, but also the absolutization of its opposite - movement. Both are expressions of the metaphysical mode of investigation. And if in the first case we take the path leading to dogmatism, then in the second - on the path leading to absolutism relativehmu. For true dialectics, there is not only no rest without movement, but also no movement without relative rest.
In addition to these methods, philosophy includes others.
Let us note some of them, which, in our opinion, are of the greatest importance. SensuAism(from Latin sensus - feeling) - a methodological principle in which feelings are taken as the basis of knowledge and which seeks to derive all knowledge from the activity of the sense organs, sensations, absolutizing their role in knowledge (Epicurus, Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, Holbach, Feuerbach and etc.).
Rationalism(from Latin ratio - mind) - a method according to which the basis of knowledge and action is the mind (Spinoza, Leibniz, Descartes, Hegel, etc.).
Irrationalism- a philosophical method that denies or at least limits the role of reason in cognition, and focuses on irrational ways of comprehending being (Schopenhauer, Kierkergaard, Nietzsche, Bergson, Heidegger, etc.).
The rapid development of science and knowledge in recent decades has led to the understanding of methodology as a specialized field of knowledge. It explores the internal mechanisms, logic and organization of knowledge. In particular, the criteria of scientific knowledge are considered, the language of science is analyzed, logic and growth are traced. scientific knowledge, structure scientific revolutions and others.
All these philosophical methods are interconnected dialectically and form an integral system, due to which philosophy acts as a general metodolOgia knowledge and exploration of the world. But along with this philosophy appears, as already mentioned, and as a special theory, which has its own categories, laws and principles of research. These two qualities of philosophy are closely interconnected. Philosophical theory, due to the universality of its provisions, laws and principles, acts at the same time as a methodology for other sciences. However, these two qualities of philosophy should not be confused.
7. Philosophy and science
When considering the question of the relationship between philosophy and science, there are at least three aspects of its interpretation: 1) whether philosophy is a science; 2) the interaction of philosophy and private (concrete) sciences; 3) correlation of philosophy and non-scientific knowledge.
The first aspect, in our opinion, cannot be denied the scientific nature of philosophy in general as one of the powerful streams of development of human knowledge and culture. And if it is approached not only from the side of specific concepts, but considered from the position of history, then one can find continuity in the development of philosophical knowledge, its problems, the commonality of the categorical apparatus and the logic of research. It is no coincidence that Hegel considered philosophy, primarily from the point of view of " onatki logic."
The conclusions obtained within the framework of philosophy serve not only as a means of obtaining scientific knowledge, but are themselves included in the content of science. It is no coincidence that many prominent scientists in the field of specific sciences are also the most prominent representatives of philosophy. Suffice it to mention the names of Pythagoras, Aristotle, Bruno, Copernicus, Descartes, Marx, Freud, Russell and many others. Philosophy has its own specific language and its own categorical apparatus. It carries out a scientific search and therefore has a scientific character. Perhaps only one clarification should be added to this - when it is based on a system of scientific knowledge.
The second aspect is interaction of philosophy and private (concrete) sciences. It is natural that modern philosophy can no longer claim to be the science of sciences, to include all knowledge. Concrete sciences have their own subject of study, their own laws and methods, their own level of generalization of knowledge. Philosophy, on the other hand, makes the generalizations of particular sciences the subject of its analysis, i.e. she deals with the higher, secondary uroVgeneralizations. If the primary level leads to the formulation of the laws of specific sciences, then the task of the second level is to identify more general patterns and trends. In this case, the main method of philosophy is theoretical thinking, based on the achievements of particular sciences, of course, if philosophy itself claims to be scientific. Major discoveries in the specific sciences also contributed to the intensive development of philosophy. Suffice it to point out the enormous influence that the successes of natural science had in modern times, at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. to the development of philosophical knowledge. At the same time, it must be borne in mind that new discoveries in the field of particular sciences can lead to the approval of scientific and philosophical conclusions, both of realistic philosophy and of that philosophical branch that represents irrationalist speculations.
However, philosophy is not only influenced by the particular sciences, but also has an impact on their development, again both positive and negative. Philosophy, of course, is not called upon to make any discoveries of a natural scientific nature. Its influence is carried out through a philosophical worldview, which in one way or another affects the initial positions of the scientist, his attitude to the world and knowledge, as well as his attitude to the need to develop a particular field of knowledge (for example, nuclear physics, eugenics, genetic engineering, etc.). .P.). the interdependence of philosophy and particular sciences was well expressed by I.V. Goethe. “From a physicist,” he wrote, “one cannot demand that he be a philosopher; but... he must be familiar with the work of the philosopher in order to bring phenomena down to the philosophical realm. A philosopher cannot be required to be a physicist, and yet his influence on the field of physics is both necessary and desirable. To do this, he does not need particulars, he only needs an understanding of those final points where these particulars converge.
Finally, the third aspect is philosophy and non-scientific knowledge. At the same time, we will divide non-scientific knowledge, with a certain degree of conventionality, into delusions associated with the research of people who are convinced that they create genuine science, and parascience(anti-science, pseudo-science, "alternative science"), which includes such "sciences" as astrology, occult "sciences", magic, witchcraft, etc.
Speaking of ratio philosophy And "erroneous mind", should, in our opinion, consider the latter as a moment in the development of scientific knowledge and philosophy. Moreover, from a historical point of view, this moment is necessary due to the very nature of the process of cognition, and it is characteristic of any science. Philosophy cannot be guaranteed against error either.
Relationship between philosophy and parascience. Note that some authors, especially this one, concerns representatives and adherents of the concept "postmodernism" call to use any teachings, up to mysticism, superstition, magic, astrology, etc. as long as they have a therapeutic effect on modern sick society and individuals. They believe that the status of the scientific worldview in modern society no higher than any functional myth, and essentially stand for boundless ideological pluralism. However, such a position of absolute neutrality of the scientific worldview to pseudoscience leads to intellectual anarchism. Moreover, with this approach of the scientific community to pseudoscience, which is expanding in the modern world, we may soon be witnessing the victory of superstition over the scientific worldview.
It must be said that the influence of parascience is greatest precisely at critical moments in the development of society and the individual. This is because parascience actually performs some psycho - and intellectual-therapeutic function, serves as a certain means of adaptation to life in a period of social and individual instability. Indeed, in a difficult moment it is always easier to turn to God, an astrologer, a sorcerer, etc. than to reason and a scientific worldview, because hope in transcendental forces is connected only with faith and expectation of some kind of God above. And this frees the individual from the need to make his own, sometimes difficult choice and from responsibility for the state of affairs, and it is relatively easier to provide peace of mind. Meanwhile, strict scientific conclusions, addressed to the mind and conscience of the individual, bring happiness and peace of mind to few people, because they place responsibility for actions on the person himself.
As for the rationalist scientific philosophy, then its status, general cultural significance and educational function, in our opinion, are incompatible with those pseudoscientific nonsense that is constantly falling on the head modern man. This requires representatives of this philosophy to more actively spread the scientific worldview. And the point here is not some ideological ambitions, but the fact that ignoring the scientific worldview can lead to dangerous social consequences. This danger increases many times over when there is an alliance between political power and parascience. Examples here are the Inquisition, and religious fanaticism, and fundamentalism, and fascism, and, as our readers are well aware, Lysenkoism, persecution of cybernetics, genetics, etc. therefore, the modern scientific and cultural-intellectual community should not look at the dominance of pseudoscience with a condescending grin, because in this case it smiles at its own moral inferiority.
Questions for self-examination:
1. What is the specificity of philosophical knowledge in accordance with other forms of exploration of the world
2. What is the history of the emergence of philosophy
3. What is the subject of philosophy
4. List the main philosophical problems
5. Describe the functions of philosophy
6. Make a table reflecting the main elements of the structure of philosophy in the following form:
Abstract topics:
1. Myth as a form of worldview
2. Features of the religious worldview
3. Relationship between philosophy and science
LECTURE№ 2
Historical types of philosophy
Plan:
1. Ancient philosophy.
2. Medieval philosophy.
3. Renaissance philosophy
4. Philosophy of modern times.
5. Modern Western philosophy.
6. Russian philosophy of the XIX-XX centuries.
7. Philosophical views I.P. Pavlova, I.I. Mechnikov, V.M. Bekhterev.
1. ancient philosophy(VIV. beforeADIVV. AD)
The beginning of the development of European philosophy was laid in ancient Greece in the VI century. BC. There are three main stages in the history of ancient Greek philosophy:
Istage - natural philosophy(VI century BC). Its specificity is the desire to understand the essence of nature, the world, the cosmos as a whole. The main question was about the beginning of the world, from what did everything come from?
Thales, the founder of ancient Greek philosophy, considered water to be such an origin, "Everything came from water." Anaximenes - air, Anaximander - apeiron - a certain boundless, eternal beginning, Heraclitus - fire, Pythagoras - number, Democritus - an indivisible atom.
Heraclitus is one of the founders of dialectics - the doctrine of the development of society and nature. He owns the saying: "Everything flows, everything changes, you cannot enter the same river twice."
IIstage - intellectualism (classical)(V-IV centuries BC). At this stage, there is a transition from the predominant study of nature to the consideration of man. The founder of this stage was Socrates(469-399 BC) - teacher Plato refused to study nature, space, because.
Philosophers are entangled in their contradictions.
The subject of knowledge can only be that which is in the power of man, i.e. his soul.
"Speak so I can see you"
"Know yourself". The main subject of philosophy is ethics. Right action must be based on right knowledge. The basis of ethics was epistemology. vices stem from ignorance. Prometheus gave people fire and reason, and Zeus gave them shame and truth, because. without this, they could not live together. The most valuable quality is virtue. In order to be virtuous, one must know what virtue is.
Socratic Conversations. A series of questions, during which contradictions in the reasoning of the interlocutor were revealed. The method of "irony" (subjective dialectics). And then Socrates revealed this contradiction, helped the listeners "to be born to a new life (maeutics is a midwife), to the knowledge of the universal - as the basis of morality."
The initial beginning of knowledge is irony. "I only know that I know nothing."
Man draws knowledge from himself.
"The task of philosophy is to help a person be born into a new life, to become more intelligent."
Three basic human virtues:
Moderation (knowing how to curb passions).
Courage (knowing how to overcome danger).
Justice (knowing how to keep the law).
The citizens did not accept Socrates. He was accused of corrupting the youth with his reasoning. Arrested and imprisoned to scare and force him to emigrate from Athens. Friends prepare to escape. But he refused and took poison. "A true philosopher must live in harmony with his teaching."
Socrates' student was ancient Greek philosopher PlAtone(427-374 BC)
In the dialogue "Theaetetus" he writes: "A true philosopher should not deal with the real world of the senses, but rise and rise to the otherworldly, imperishable world of ideas."
Created a school on Mount Akadema. The Academy has existed for 1000 years.
Two worlds:
The first is the world of ideas (eidos) - real, permanent, perfect.
The second is the world of things, changeable.
"People see objects and do not see their ideas, they take shadows for the real world." Many have "cave knowledge of the shadows", i.e. life experience and more.
Just as a sensual object, the concept corresponds to a special object - the idea (einos - view). There was a bifurcation of the world into sensual and ideal.
Matter according to Plato is the primary material from which all existing things are made, in some amazing way. Matter is a possibility, not a reality.
A plurality of ideas make up a single one, which is the highest being and is identical with the highest good.
Plato's theory of knowledge
The soul of a person is close to the world of ideas and gives him all the knowledge, because. contains them in a hidden form. The soul exists forever, it transmigrates.
The task of knowledge is to make a person remember. Objects of the sensory world are occasions for the excitation of memories (assimilation of the concept on a human example). You need to drop nature and go deep into yourself.
Cosmology. The world is in eternal divine harmony, thanks to God.
Ethics. The condition of morality is the knowledge possessed by the soul. The soul is made up of three parts:
Reasonable
Ardent (strong-willed)
Lustful
The combination of these parts, under the guidance of the mind, gives rise to the character of a person.
If the rational part prevails, then these people strive to contemplate the beauty of ideas, strive for the eternal good: truth, justice and moderation in everything. These are the sages. If the affective part of the soul takes over, then these people are distinguished by noble passions - courage, bravery, a sense of duty. These are warriors.
People of the "lustful" type should be engaged in physical labor, because. originally attached to the corporeally physical world. These are peasants and artisans. But the whole estate must have a common virtue - a measure. "Nothing beyond measure."
The soul makes a person a person. She is connected to the world of ideas and sometimes remembers what she saw there.
public views. The state must maintain a measure of the happiness of social groups, not allow transition to other groups (“the State”). The state should patronize religion.
Negative state types:
Timocracy is the power of the ambitious, at its core the desire for enrichment.
Oligarchy is the rule of the few over the many. The rich rule.
Democracy - all contradictions are resolved by uprisings. If the poor win, the rich are exterminated and power is divided.
Tyranny is the degeneration of democracy. In order for the people to feel the need for war, wars are needed. Ideal states: the rule of a few, but able and prepared. The main thing is justice, i.e. to each a special occupation and a special position. Valor in an ideal state:
Wisdom
Courage
deterrent measure
Justice
The pinnacle of the development of ancient Greek philosophy was the teaching of the disciple of Plato, AristObody(384-322 BC), "Alexander the Great of Greek Philosophy". In Athens, he opened a school near the Lyceum Temple (Lyceum).
He gave a classification of sciences: theoretical - knowledge for the sake of knowledge, practical - give ideas for human behavior, creative - knowledge in order to implement something beautiful.
Logics - tool of knowledge, introduction to philosophy.
Everything exists as a single, individual, perceived by human feelings. But the world should be studied in its unity and necessity. He studies the basic forms of being and general logical concepts (categories). The main category is entity. It is the basis to which all other properties belong.
Being in Aristotle
a system of categories, interconnected, mobile, fluid. Matter is the substratum of every thing from which a thing arises. She is eternal and indestructible. There is no matter in its pure form, without form. Matter is possibility and form is reality. Entelechy is the realization of a thing in motion from matter to form.
Movement: - "There are no movements apart from things." Movement is a process
the transformation of the potential into the actual (the process of turning copper into a statue).
The doctrine of matter, energy, form and entelechy underlies the doctrine of cause.
In "Categories" he writes about 6 types of movement:
Emergence.
Destruction.
Height.
Decrease.
quality changes.
Change in space.
Peace is a state where there is no forceful and contrary to nature.
The soul is the beginning of life. "Types" of the soul:
vegetable - is in charge of the functions of nutrition, growth, reproduction. Common to all animate.
animal - manifests itself in feelings, desires, i.e. striving for the pleasant and avoiding the unpleasant.
rational soul - a person has the ability to think. In man, only the mind is immortal, which, after the death of the body, merges with the world mind.
The world mind is the leader, the mind is active. unlike human
mind passive, perceiving. "The first engine" is God. God is the mind, the thought that molds itself.”
The process of learning: Body - external irritation - sensation - imagination - thinking. The object of knowledge - real world. Nature is primary. Aristotle is a sensationalist. Thinking is studied by logic. The order of things in nature is the supreme law for combining concepts in judgments. But concepts can be combined subjectively, which leads to error, objectively - to the truth.
Contemplation is the highest form of knowledge and leisure. Public views - a person a political being has an instinct for living together. A slave has a body in the first place, a free soul has a soul. The soul dominates the body. The state is created to live happily. The ideal state is based on private ownership of land, tools and slaves. The state should be engaged in the education of young people. The creator of society is the middle class.
Aristotle developed a typology of states:
Correct:
kingship (one for the benefit of all) monarchy
aristocracy - the rule of a few in the interests of society
polity - the rule of the majority, selected on the basis of a certain qualification.
Wrong:
tyranny (one for one's own interests)
oligarchy (a little for its own sake)
democracy (most have-nots only for their own interests).
The best is politia.
Introduces the concept of "middle form" states:
in morals - moderation
in property - prosperity
in power - the middle class.
The concept of "fairness":
a) equalizing - source - law
b) distributing - from the contribution of each
Man is a social animal, endowed with reason, by nature intended for life in society. Only in society can morality be formed. He who is not able to answer for his actions, is not able to become his own master, cannot cultivate moderation in self-denial and other virtues, he is a slave by nature and can only carry out the will of another.
IIIstage - Hellenistic(IV century BC - II century AD). During the Hellenistic period, philosophy focuses its interest on the life of the individual. At this time, several philosophical schools arise:
7. Stoics saw the main task of philosophy in the healing of moral ailments, the education of virtue. The true value of a person is in his virtue, but it does not depend on origin, but depends on the personality of her will.
8. Epicureans - followers of the philosopher Epicurus. Epicurus saw the meaning of philosophy in the fact that, knowing the nature of the universe, the human mind, society, a person finds peace and happiness. A reasonable, moral and just life is a happy life.
9. Cynics. The most prominent representative of ancient Greek philosophical school was Diogenes from Sinop. He rejected all the achievements of civilizations and called for the satisfaction of only the necessary needs to be closer to nature. He criticized class differences, despised luxury and the desire for pleasure. Diogenes expressed the interests of the democratic strata of the slave-owning society.
10. Skeptics rejected the intelligibility of life. The ancient skeptic lives as he wants, avoids the need to evaluate something. His silence is a philosophical answer to the questions put to him. Refraining from certain judgments, the skeptic remains imperturbable.
Conclusion: Thus, ancient philosophy cosmocentric.
Cosmocentrism- this is a philosophical worldview principle, the content of which was the desire to understand the world as a whole, its origin and essence.
2. Medieval philosophy (V-XVcenturies.)
Medieval philosophy is based on Christian belief. The church was in those days the focus and center of spiritual culture and education. Philosophy acted as the “servant of theology”. The vast majority of philosophers of that time were representatives of the clergy.
There are two stages in the history of medieval philosophy:
Istage - patristics(V-VIII centuries) from the word pater - father, meaning "father of the Church." the main representative of patristics is Augustine (354 - 430)
one of the most revered official catholic church, Augustine, nicknamed "Blessed", spoke of most of the great past scientists and philosophers as conceited people who sing of lies and deceit. Before becoming a Christian (387), Augustine was successively influenced by skeptics and Platonists. These influences left a deep imprint on his worldview. The most important of his works are "On the Immortality of the Soul", "On Free Will", "On Christian Science", "Confession", "On the City of God".
Augustine the Blessed:
1 Formulated evidence for God through the existence of a super-perfect being.
2 Developed the doctrine of divine grace and divine predestination.
3 In the treatise "On the City of God", he put forward the idea of the church's right to coercion in matters of faith.
Finding no signs of the existence of God and opportunities for his knowledge in the sensual, objective world surrounding a person, Augustine turns to identifying the internal features of a person and suggests that a person consists of a body and a soul, “one outside, the other inside.” Since he failed to find God outside of man, he searches for him within himself: “People go to marvel at the height of the mountains, and the huge waves of the sea, and the greatest waterfalls, and the vastness of the ocean, and the course of the stars, and do not pay attention to themselves.”
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Philosophy(ancient Greek φιλοσοφία - love of wisdom, wisdom; from φιλέω - love and σοφία - wisdom) - a discipline that studies the most common essential characteristics and fundamental principles of reality (being) and knowledge, human being, the relationship of man and the world. Philosophy is usually described as a theory or science, one of the forms of worldview, one of the forms of human activity, a special way of knowing.
Term history:
It is believed that the word "philosophy" was first coined by Pythagoras, according to Diogenes Laertes. Pythagoras did not leave any writings behind him, so the first author who uses the word "philosopher" is Heraclitus.
From Ancient Greece the term "philosophy" has spread in the countries of the West and the Middle East.
In the eastern In the traditions, philosophy was not singled out as a separate field of activity, and was dissolved in cultural, religious and political teachings, so that there are only approximate analogues of the term “philosophy” in them.
For example, in Indian philosophy, the following terms were used: “brahma-vidya” (“knowledge of the Absolute”), “anvikshiki” (“reflexive vision”), “darshana” (“theoretical vision”), “mata” - (“theory”).
In Chinese philosophy used the term "xue" ("theory").
in Arabic In the philosophical tradition, the word "falsafa" originating from the ancient Greek was used in two meanings: in a broad sense as "philosophy" and in a narrow one - as the name of one specific philosophical and theological school (primarily, the followers of al-Kindi). In translations of a number of Arabic philosophical treatises, this "false friend of the translator" led to misunderstandings, of which the most famous is al-Ghazali's book "The Self-Refutation of the Philosophers" (Arab. Tahafut al-falasifa), which is a pamphlet against this particular school, and not philosophy itself (in some other works, al-Ghazali is not so critical of the "philosophers" and recognizes the significance of the contribution of al-Kindi). Ironically, this error is made by Bertrand Russell in his History of Western Philosophy.
In everyday language the word "philosophy" can also mean general outlook of a person or his individual beliefs or ethics.
Philosophy and worldview
Philosophy is a worldview discipline (science), since its task is to review the world as a whole, to find answers to the most common questions.
outlook- a system of the most general views on the world (nature and society) and the place of man in this world. In the history of mankind, a number of forms of worldview are distinguished: mythology, religion, philosophy, and others.
Any philosophy is a worldview, i.e. a set of the most general views on the world and the place of man in it. However, this does not mean at all that any worldview is also a philosophy. The concept of "worldview" is broader than the concept of "philosophy". This means that the first includes the second. Just as the concept of “fruit” implies, for example, not only an apple, but also a pear, cherry, etc., so the concept of “worldview” cannot be reduced only to philosophy. It also includes other types of worldview - mythological, artistic, religious, etc.
Another aspect of this issue is related to the consideration of different levels of reflection of reality. Worldview and philosophy are the result of reflection of the world, but the depth of this reflection can be different. The first elementary type of reflection occurs at the level of sensations. In relation to the worldview, it is associated with the worldview or worldview. Here, only separate, external manifestations of being, the world of phenomena, and not entities, are fixed. The next deepest levels of reflection in this plan are worldview and worldview. Here an integral picture of the world is already created, the interconnection of processes and phenomena is indicated, their identity and difference are fixed. However, at this level, the worldview is limited more by sensory experience than by rational thinking, here feelings and reason still prevail over reason. And only when reflection occurs through concepts, a worldview is formed that can reveal the patterns and essence of phenomena and processes. Conceptual reflection is the deepest level of reflection associated with abstract thinking and theoretical knowledge. Worldview at this level can be called worldview. That is what philosophy represents. Thus, philosophy is the highest level and type of worldview, it is a theoretically formalized, system-rational worldview. It is, by its very essence, designed to reveal the rational meaning and universal laws of the existence and development of the world and man.
Finally, we note one more - the historical aspect of the distinction between philosophy and worldview. We are talking about the fact that philosophy is the latest type of worldview in historical terms, which arose after myth and religion. In this regard, it should be said that society has already managed and, generally speaking, can do without a philosophy based on reason and thinking, but then its place is automatically replaced by a worldview representing either a mythological worldview or a religious worldview based on belief in supernatural phenomena. strength. History provides the most convincing evidence for this.
Philosophy and religion
Like philosophy, religion also explores the root causes of the conceivable (God, Brahman), but in religion the emphasis is on faith, cult, revelation, and in philosophy - on intellectual comprehension.
Thus, philosophy provides an additional opportunity to comprehend the meaning and comprehend the wisdom inherent in religion. In religion, faith is in the foreground; in philosophy, thought and knowledge. Religion is dogmatic and philosophy is anti-dogmatic. Religion has a cult, unlike philosophy.
Karl Jaspers wrote: “A sign of philosophical faith, the faith of a thinking person, is always the fact that it exists only in union with knowledge. It wants to know what is known and to understand itself.”
Philosophy and religion have completely different tasks and are essentially different forms of spiritual activity. Religion is a life in communion with God, aimed at satisfying the personal need of the human soul for salvation, for finding ultimate strength and contentment, unshakable peace of mind and joy. Philosophy is, in essence, the highest, completely independent of any personal interests, completing the comprehension of being and life by discerning their absolute fundamental principle. But these, in essence, heterogeneous forms of spiritual life coincide with each other in the sense that both of them are feasible only through the focus of consciousness on the same object - on God, more precisely, through the living, experimental discernment of God. Of course, arguing abstractly, it is possible to imagine the inverse relationship - namely, the complete divergence of the ways of accomplishing both tasks. Where, as, for example, in Buddhism, personal salvation is not found on the path of communion with God, and where, on the other hand, the mind strives to comprehend life and the world not from its eternal and absolute fundamental principle, there is nothing in common between religion and philosophy; not only do they contradict one another, but in this case they are just as out of touch with each other as, say, music and chemical analysis. But the whole point is precisely that such completely divergent paths are for both religion and philosophy imaginary paths that do not lead to the goal, and that, on the contrary, the real fulfillment of the tasks of both is possible only on paths leading to one and the same goal - to God. With regard to religion, this statement does not, of course, require special proof; here we can calmly leave to individual paradoxists the work, contrary to universal human experience, to prove the opposite. On the contrary, in relation to philosophy, this is a thesis that requires final clarification and proof, by no means exhausted by previous general considerations.
Philosophical knowledge in its achievements necessarily lags behind the achievements of direct religious penetration into the depths of being. There are substantial grounds for this, rooted in the very nature of both spiritual activities. First of all, religious faith, being a living, immediate sensation and experience of the Divine, does not need for its achievements the hard mental work of rational explanation and substantiation of its truths. In addition, although religion, as indicated above, necessarily contains, as its main point of reference, the moment of direct personal judgment of truth, it does not at all need this direct judgment to extend to the entire content of religious faith. On the contrary, it is characteristic that this moment of direct evidence is inherent in the perception of truthfulness, the unconditional truth of the source of revelation - whether it will be the same Deity or this or that intermediary between God and man - due to which the content of the revelation acquires an indirect certainty of truth, reported by a self-evidently reliable witness . That is why the content of conciliar religious experience, with all the achievements of religious geniuses included in it, can be - and even necessarily happens - the property of personal faith. This achieves the possibility of completeness, richness and depth of religious revelation, completely unattainable for philosophical knowledge. For although there are no fundamental barriers to philosophical knowledge and the possibility of endless achievements is open, the logical unity of content required by the nature of philosophical knowledge makes it practically impossible for it to use in one system the entirety of the religious experience of mankind. Only the fullness and diversity of all philosophical achievements of human thought can, in principle, become at the level of its religious achievements, but this completeness can only be given to spiritual-historical intuition, but is not adequately expressed in any single system. A philosophical system that attempts to express and logically fix the entire religious experience of mankind is a concept similar to an attempt to draw a geographical map on which all the diversity of geographical reality would be marked. And here, on the other hand, we are again convinced that the correct relationship between religion and philosophy is possible only on the basis of that "wise ignorance" (docta ignorantia), which is the most mature fruit of true enlightenment. A truly philosophical mindset in its volitional structure coincides with a religious mindset: in both - contrary to superficial opinion, which seems impossible - humility is combined with the audacity of creativity, and moreover, not in such a way that each of these volitional tendencies restrains and limits the other, but that each of them, on the contrary, nourishes and strengthens the other.
