Presentation on the topic of German classical philosophy. Presentation on the topic: German classical philosophy
LECTURE 10.
Philosophy of the Renaissance and Modern Times
(German classical philosophy).
1. Organizational moment.
2. Announcement of the topic, purpose and lesson plan.Goal - "Today in class you will learn about German classical philosophy."
Plan:
2.1. Review of the past "First we will review the previous topic."
2.2. German classical philosophy.
2.3. Independent work.
3. Repetition of the past.
3.1. Describe the Renaissance.
3.2. Define humanism.
3.3. Define anthropocentrism.
3.4. Define individualism.
3.5. Define rationalism.
3.6. Define empiricism.
4. Learning new material.
4.1. Today we will consider German classical philosophy and its main representatives, who in their research have found a new approach to man. Under the record. “Classical German philosophy is a period in the development of German philosophy of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, during which it consistently appeared: German classical idealism (founder - I. Kant, successors - J. G. Fichte, F. W. Schelling, G. Hegel) and the materialism of L. Feuerbach. The main achievement of this period was the creation of the logic of development - dialectics. The philosophers of this group continued the development of the theory of knowledge, proceeding from the autonomy of man and the world of culture in relation to nature. In their interpretation, the world of culture is introduced from the activity of the human spirit, while the thinking subject turns out to be the basis of the universe.
Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804) is the founder of German classical idealism. If pre-Kantian logic actually considered the process of formally proving what was already known, then the logic of I. Kant, studying the rules for the formation of judgments, turned to the relationship of subject and object, the relationship of the cognizing person to the objective world. The process of cognition for Kant turns out to be an active process of creativity, creation, synthesis of new content.
The basis of the teachings of I. Kant is the concept of “thing in itself”, i.e. things, as it exists in itself (or "in itself"), in contrast to how it is "for us" - in our knowledge. Theoretical knowledge is possible only in relation to phenomena, but not in relation to the “thing in itself”. In the field of science, this is space and time (they are also forms of contemplation), in philosophy, this is God, immortality and the freedom to determine human actions. According to Kant, science, delving into the essence of the world, actually refines the laws of knowledge itself. Science can be both unlimited (the absence of restrictions for empirical science) and limited (scientific knowledge cannot go beyond the logical forms through which objective knowledge of reality occurs). Kant laid the foundations for the so-called. agnosticism, i.e. doctrine of the unknowability of the world. The external world influences our senses, filling them with a chaos of impressions. But after ordering chaos with forms of contemplation and categories (unity, plurality, wholeness, reality, negation, etc.), we are already dealing with our own experience. We see external world not as it really is, but as our impressions present it to us. Therefore, the world is unknowable.
Kant proclaimed the basic law of ethics as an internal command (categorical imperative), requiring to always act according to a principle that could also become a universal law (or: to act in such a way as to always treat humanity - in one's own person and in the person of another - as an end, and not only as a means). Kant argued that without freedom there is no moral act. The basis of human freedom is the ability of a person to determine his own actions and make his own choice. But freedom should be distinguished from arbitrariness as the satisfaction of random whims and desires. Morality cannot be conditioned either by calculation, or by profit, or by the pursuit of happiness or pleasure. Moral behavior cannot have external motives at all. And only debt is recognized as the only internal motive for such behavior. A person acts morally when he acts contrary to inclination, calculation, etc. In Kant's teaching, the question of faith and the question of morality turn out to be one and the same question. And the postulates "God exists" and "My soul is immortal" become ethical postulates.
Kant connects the concept of beauty with expediency. There is external expediency (the subject of knowledge is commensurate with our cognitive powers) and internal expediency (the suitability of an object or creature to achieve a certain goal; the strength and endurance of a bull is suitable both for people and for itself). It is the internal expediency, according to Kant, that constitutes the source of beauty. However, an aesthetic attitude does not arise in a person every time he encounters something internally expedient. The condition of aesthetic perception should be disinterest in this subject from a practical point of view. The contemplation of the beautiful should give, according to Kant, an uninterested pleasure, which we receive mainly from the form of the contemplated object. The second condition of the aesthetic relationship is connected with the fact that this is precisely the feeling and experience of beauty. Beauty, according to Kant, is the experience of the expediency of an object without an idea of the goal. Reason kills beauty, because it decomposes the integrity of the object into its separate details, trying to trace their connection. The perception of beauty therefore cannot be taught. But the feeling of beauty can be brought up on the basis of communication with harmoniously organized forms. Harmonious form, according to Kant, is what is expedient without purpose.
Georg Hegel (1770 - 1831) moved from the subjective idealism of I. Kant to objective idealism. In accordance with his theory, the spiritual culture of mankind is the gradual revelation of the creative power of the "world mind". Being embodied in successively replacing each other images of culture, the impersonal (world, objective) spirit at the same time recognizes itself as their creator. The spiritual development of an individual briefly reproduces the stages of self-knowledge of the “world spirit”, starting with the act of naming sensory-given “things” and ending with “absolute knowledge”, that is, knowledge of those forms and laws that control the entire process from within spiritual development, - the development of science, morality, religion, art, political and legal systems. "Absolute knowledge" is nothing but logic. The universal scheme of the creative activity of the "world spirit" is called the absolute idea. By declaring thinking a "subject", i.e., the sole creator of all the spiritual wealth developed by history, Hegel brings the concept of an idea closer to the concept of God. However, unlike God, the idea acquires consciousness, will and personality only in a person, and outside and before a person is realized as an internally regular necessity. In general, Hegel created a philosophical justification for religion, deducing the proof of the existence of God.
G. Hegel is the creator of the systematic theory of dialectics, the doctrine of the most general patterns of formation and development, the inner source of which is seen in the unity and struggle of opposites. The unity of opposites consists in the fact that there are poles or extremes, such as left and right, good and bad, plus and minus, north and south poles, etc. These poles equally mutually presuppose each other (if there is a left, must be right) and exclude one another (evil has other properties than good). The struggle of opposites lies in the fact that any organic system contains an internal contradiction, which is continuously resolved and reproduced and complicated by the fact that each of the external opposites, which have relative independence, is itself contradictory. Moreover, only through the complete resolution of such contradictions of the whole is it possible to progressively overcome it and pass to a higher form.
Ludwig Feuerbach (1804 - 1872). Moving away from Hegelian idealism, he took the position of materialism, putting man as a material object and at the same time a thinking subject at the center of research. Cause religious beliefs, according to Feuerbach, is rooted in the "nature of man" and the conditions of his life. Feuerbach saw the primary source of religion in the feeling of dependence, limitation, impotence of a person in relation to the elements and forces that are not subject to his will. Powerlessness seeks a way out in the hope and consolation generated by fantasy - this is how the images of the gods arise as a source of fulfillment of human hopes. Why, notes Feuerbach, God, according to Christian doctrine, is Love? And therefore, he argues, that love is an essential property of man himself. Love is the indestructible desire of man, and therefore he deifies it.
In his later works, he criticizes not religion as such, but false and alienated forms of manifestation of "religious feeling", to which he attributed the traditional forms of religious beliefs. But the overcoming of these forms, including Christianity, should lead to the return of the religious feeling of the "true form". Religious feeling, therefore, turns out to be a special higher feeling of man. The basis of true religion, according to Feuerbach, is love for another person.
In the theory of knowledge, Feuerbach highlighted experience as the primary source of knowledge and emphasized the mutual connection of feelings, contemplation and thinking in the process of cognition. He believed that human feelings are capable of fixing the essential in the world around us. Recognizing the original reasonableness of our feelings, Feuerbach establishes a connection between the sensual and rational levels of knowledge. He saw the universal nature of human feelings. Thus, Feuerbach sees the originality of human sensual contemplation in the fact that a person is able not only to see, hear, feel, but also understand the perceived through feelings.
4.2. Independent work in the classroom. Follow the link http://bse.sci-lib.com/article058616.html, read the text and write down I. Kant's achievements in the "pre-critical" period of his activity in the notebook.
Preview:
IMMANUEL KANT: Theory of knowledge ("thing in itself")
IMMANUEL KANT: Theory of knowledge (agnosticism)
IMMANUEL KANT: Ethics and Aesthetics
GEORGE HEGEL: Objective idealism
GEORGE HEGEL: Dialectic
LUDWIG FEUERBACH: Anthropological materialism
Independent work in the lesson
THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION!
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1. general characteristics German classical philosophy. 2. Critical philosophy of I. Kant. 3. Idealistic philosophy of I. Fichte and F. Schelling. 4. Objective idealism of G. Hegel. 5. Anthropological materialism L. Feuerbach.
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General characteristics of German classical philosophy.
german philosophy XIX century - a unique phenomenon of world philosophy. Its uniqueness lies in the fact that she managed to deeply explore the problems that determined the future development of philosophy, combine almost all philosophical trends known at that time, discover the names of outstanding philosophers who entered the "golden fund" of world philosophy. It was based on the work of the five most prominent German philosophers of that time: Immanuel Kant, Johann Fichte, Friedrich Schelling, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Ludwig Feuerbach.
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Three leading philosophical trends were represented in German classical philosophy: The contribution of German classical philosophy to world philosophical thought is as follows: 1. the teachings of German classical philosophy contributed to the development of a dialectical worldview; 2. German classical philosophy has significantly enriched the logical and theoretical apparatus; 3. considered history as a holistic process, and also paid serious attention to the study of human essence.
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Critical philosophy of I. Kant
The founder of German classical philosophy was Immanuel Kant, a professor at the University of Königsberg, who taught logic, physics, mathematics, and philosophy.
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All the work of I. Kant can be divided into two large periods: “pre-critical” and “critical”. In the "pre-critical" period, I. Kant stood on the positions of natural-scientific materialism. The problems of cosmology, mechanics, anthropology and physical geography were at the center of his interests. Under the influence of Newton, I. Kant formed his views on the cosmos, the world as a whole. In the "critical" period, I. Kant was occupied with the problems of cognition, ethics, aesthetics, logic, and social philosophy. Three fundamental philosophical works appeared during this period: Critique of Pure Reason, Critique of Practical Reason, Critique of Judgment.
Slide 7
The process of cognition, according to I. Kant, goes through three stages: sensory cognition, reason, reason. Through sensitivity we perceive the object, but it is conceived through the mind. Cognition is possible only as a result of their synthesis. Categories are the instrument of rational cognition. scientific knowledge is categorical knowledge. I. Kant identifies twelve categories and divides them into four classes: quantity, quality, relation, modality. For example: the quantity class includes categories - unity, plurality, wholeness. I. Kant classifies knowledge itself as the result of cognitive activity: a posteriori knowledge, a priori knowledge, "Thing in itself".
Slide 8
The ethical views of I. Kant are reflected in his statement: “Two things always fill the soul with new and stronger surprise, reverence, the more often and longer we think about them - this is the starry sky above me and the moral law in me.” Moral duty I. Kant formulates in the form moral law(categorical imperative): "Do so that the maxim of your will may become the principle of universal legislation."
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“Man is endowed with an inherently evil nature. Man's salvation lies in moral education and strict observance of the moral law. I.Kant
Slide 10
Idealistic philosophy of I. Fichte and F. Schelling
Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762) German philosopher. One of the representatives of German classical philosophy and the founders of a group of trends in philosophy known as subjective idealism, which developed from the theoretical and ethical works of Immanuel Kant.
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Philosophical views Johann Fichte are set forth in his works: “The Experience of Criticizing All Revelation”, “Scientific Teaching”, “Fundamentals natural law". The thinker calls his philosophy "scientific teaching". The key point of I. Fichte's philosophy was the promotion of the so-called "I - concept", according to which the "I" has complex relationships with the outside world, which, according to I. Fichte, are described by the scheme "I" initially posits itself, creates itself, " I" supposes (forms) "not - I", i.e. its opposite - the external surrounding reality (antithesis), · "I" believes "I" and "not-I". The interaction between the “I am a man” and the “not-I” - the surrounding world takes place inside the “Absolute Self” (receptacle, higher substance) from two sides: on the one hand, the “I” creates the “not-I”, and on the other hand “ not - I "transmits experience, information" I ".
slide 12
The philosophy of Friedrich Schelling in its development went through three main stages: natural philosophy, practical philosophy, irrationalism. Philosophical ideas F. Schelling outlined in the works "Ideas for the Philosophy of Nature", "The System of Transcendental Idealism". In natural philosophy, F. Schelling gives an explanation of nature, according to which nature is the "absolute" root cause and the beginning of everything.
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Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling (1775) German philosopher. He was close to the Jena romantics. An outstanding representative of idealism in the new philosophy.
Slide 14
The anthropological views of F. Schelling are of great importance. The main problem of mankind is the problem of freedom. The desire for freedom is inherent in the very nature of man. The final result of the idea of freedom is the creation of a legal system. In the future, mankind must come to a world legal system and a world federation of rule of law states. Another important problem is the problem of alienation - the opposite of the original goals. human activity when the idea of freedom comes into contact with reality. At the end of his life, F. Schelling came to irrationalism - the denial of any logic of regularity in history and the perception of the surrounding reality as inexplicable chaos.
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Objective idealism of G. Hegel
The philosophy of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel is considered the pinnacle of German classical philosophy, as he went much further than his famous predecessors. The main merit of Hegel is developed by him: - The theory of objective idealism; - universal philosophical method - dialectics.
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The most important philosophical works of G. Hegel include: "Phenomenology of Spirit", "Encyclopedia philosophical sciences”, “Science of Logic”, “Philosophy of Nature”, “Philosophy of Spirit”. "Philosophy of Law". In the doctrine of being G. Hegel identifies being and thinking. Mind, consciousness, idea have being, and being has consciousness: everything reasonable is real, and everything real is reasonable. G. Hegel deduces a special philosophical concept- "absolute idea" (world spirit). The absolute idea is the root cause of the entire surrounding world, its objects and phenomena, has self-consciousness and the ability to create.
Slide 17
The spirit, according to Hegel, has three varieties: subjective spirit - the soul, the consciousness of an individual person; Objective spirit - the next step of the spirit, "the spirit of society as a whole." The expression of the objective spirit is law, morality, civil society, the state; absolute spirit - the highest manifestation of the spirit, the eternally valid truth. Expression of the absolute spirit are: art, religion, philosophy.
Slide 18
G. Hegel expressed many rational philosophical, methodological and scientific ideas (the need for the unity of the philosophical and particular scientific study of nature; the understanding that nature is a holistic, interconnected progress).
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The socio-philosophical concept of G. Hegel deserves the closest attention. Many of the findings are relevant today. In the "Philosophy of History" G. Hegel expressed a number of valuable conjectures related to understanding the historical pattern, the role of great people in history. G. Hegel understood the history of mankind not as a chain of random events. For him, it had a natural character, in which the world mind is revealed. Great people play a role in history insofar as "because they are the embodiment of the spirit of their time." The meaning of the whole world history is, according to G. Hegel, progress in the consciousness of nature - progress, which we must recognize in its necessity.
Slide 20
Anthropological materialism L. Feuerbach
Materialistic traditions in German classical philosophy were developed by Ludwig Feuerbach.
slide 21
In the theory of anthropological materialism, L. Feuerbach substantiates the following conclusions: · the only existing realities are nature and man; Man is a part of nature; Man is a unity of material and spiritual; Man must become the main interest of philosophy. Not thinking, not nature, but precisely man is the center of the whole methodology; The idea does not exist by itself, but is a product of human consciousness; · God as a separate and independent reality does not exist; God is a figment of man's imagination; nature (matter) is eternal and infinite, no one can create and no one can destroy; Everything that surrounds us (objects, phenomena) are various manifestations of matter.
slide 22
In the atheistic-anthropological theory of L. Feuerbach, the following main provisions are important: · There is no God as an independent reality; God is a product of human consciousness; · the thought of God - a superpowerful rational being humiliates a person, dulls his fear and affects; · God is not a creator, the true creator is man, and God is a creation of man, his mind; Religion is a deeply developed fantastic ideology and has nothing to do with reality; The roots of religion are in the feeling of a person's powerlessness before the higher world, his dependence on it.
slide 23
In the theory of knowledge, L. Feuerbach waged a sharp struggle against the agnosticism of I. Kant, declaring that the boundaries of knowledge are constantly expanding, that the human mind is capable of discovering the deepest secrets of nature in its development. However, Feuerbach defended materialistic sensationalism, since he considered only sensations, and not practice, as the basis of knowledge.
slide 24
From the point of view of methodology, L. Feuerbach's materialism is assessed as metaphysical, although there are elements of dialectics. Interesting guesses can be found in L. Feuerbach about the source of development - contradiction. He believes that opposites refer to the same kind of essence: good - evil (morality), pleasant - unpleasant (feelings), sweet - sour (taste), man - woman (human). The principle of development allowed L. Feuerbach to explain the emergence of man and his consciousness.
Slide 25
Conclusion
Thus, classical German philosophy played an outstanding role in the history of the development of dialectical thinking, in its critical attitude to the metaphysical method that dominated the philosophy of the 17th-18th centuries.
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The achievement of the German philosophers lies in the fact that it was they who developed the dialectical method. I. Kant tried to substantiate idealistic dialectics in his doctrine of the antinomies of pure reason. Fichte invested in idealistic dialectics the understanding of reason as a movement from the thesis through antithesis to synthesis. Dialectics receives the most detailed view from G. Hegel, in his method, which reveals the dialectics of things, the development of society and nature. Together with the materialism of L. Feuerbach, the dialectics of G. Hegel became the basis for the further development of philosophical thought.
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The presentation on the topic "German classical philosophy" can be downloaded absolutely free of charge on our website. Project subject: Philosophy. Colorful slides and illustrations will help you keep your classmates or audience interested. To view the content, use the player, or if you want to download the report, click on the appropriate text under the player. The presentation contains 26 slide(s).
Presentation slides
slide 1
slide 2
slide 3
German philosophy of the 19th century is a unique phenomenon in world philosophy. Its uniqueness lies in the fact that she managed to deeply explore the problems that determined the future development of philosophy, combine almost all philosophical trends known at that time, discover the names of outstanding philosophers who entered the "golden fund" of world philosophy. It was based on the work of the five most prominent German philosophers of that time: Immanuel Kant, Johann Fichte, Friedrich Schelling, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Ludwig Feuerbach.
General characteristics of German classical philosophy.
slide 4
Three leading philosophical trends were represented in German classical philosophy: The contribution of German classical philosophy to world philosophical thought is as follows: 1. the teachings of German classical philosophy contributed to the development of a dialectical worldview; 2. German classical philosophy has significantly enriched the logical and theoretical apparatus; 3. considered history as a holistic process, and also paid serious attention to the study of human essence.
slide 5
The founder of German classical philosophy was Immanuel Kant, a professor at the University of Königsberg, who taught logic, physics, mathematics, and philosophy.
Critical philosophy of I. Kant
slide 6
All the work of I. Kant can be divided into two large periods: “pre-critical” and “critical”. In the "pre-critical" period, I. Kant stood on the positions of natural-scientific materialism. The problems of cosmology, mechanics, anthropology and physical geography were at the center of his interests. Under the influence of Newton, I. Kant formed his views on the cosmos, the world as a whole. In the "critical" period, I. Kant was occupied with the problems of cognition, ethics, aesthetics, logic, and social philosophy. Three fundamental philosophical works appeared during this period: Critique of Pure Reason, Critique of Practical Reason, Critique of Judgment.
Slide 7
The process of cognition, according to I. Kant, goes through three stages: sensory cognition, reason, reason. Through sensitivity we perceive the object, but it is conceived through the mind. Cognition is possible only as a result of their synthesis. Categories are the instrument of rational cognition. Scientific knowledge is categorical knowledge. I. Kant identifies twelve categories and divides them into four classes: quantity, quality, relation, modality. For example: the quantity class includes categories - unity, plurality, wholeness. I. Kant classifies knowledge itself as the result of cognitive activity: a posteriori knowledge, a priori knowledge, "Thing in itself".
Slide 8
The ethical views of I. Kant are reflected in his statement: “Two things always fill the soul with new and stronger surprise, reverence, the more often and longer we think about them - this is the starry sky above me and the moral law in me.” Moral duty I. Kant formulates in the form of a moral law (categorical imperative): "Do so that the maxim of your will could become the principle of universal legislation."
Slide 9
Slide 10
Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762) German philosopher. One of the representatives of German classical philosophy and the founders of a group of trends in philosophy known as subjective idealism, which developed from the theoretical and ethical works of Immanuel Kant.
Idealistic philosophy of I. Fichte and F. Schelling
slide 11
The philosophical views of Johann Fichte are set forth in his works: "The Experience of Criticizing All Revelation", "Scientific Studies", "Fundamentals of Natural Law". The thinker calls his philosophy "scientific teaching". The key point of I. Fichte's philosophy was the promotion of the so-called "I - concept", according to which the "I" has complex relationships with the outside world, which, according to I. Fichte, are described by the scheme "I" initially posits itself, creates itself, " I" supposes (forms) "not - I", i.e. its opposite - the external surrounding reality (antithesis), · "I" believes "I" and "not-I". The interaction between the “I am a man” and the “not-I” - the surrounding world takes place inside the “Absolute Self” (receptacle, higher substance) from two sides: on the one hand, the “I” creates the “not-I”, and on the other hand “ not - I "transmits experience, information" I ".
slide 12
The philosophy of Friedrich Schelling in its development went through three main stages: natural philosophy, practical philosophy, irrationalism. Philosophical ideas F. Schelling outlined in the works "Ideas for the Philosophy of Nature", "The System of Transcendental Idealism". In natural philosophy, F. Schelling gives an explanation of nature, according to which nature is the "absolute" root cause and the beginning of everything.
slide 13
Slide 14
The anthropological views of F. Schelling are of great importance. The main problem of mankind is the problem of freedom. The desire for freedom is inherent in the very nature of man. The final result of the idea of freedom is the creation of a legal system. In the future, mankind must come to a world legal system and a world federation of rule of law states. Another important problem is the problem of alienation - the result of human activity opposite to the original goals when the idea of freedom comes into contact with reality. At the end of his life, F. Schelling came to irrationalism - the denial of any logic of regularity in history and the perception of the surrounding reality as inexplicable chaos.
slide 15
The philosophy of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel is considered the pinnacle of German classical philosophy, as he went much further than his famous predecessors. The main merit of Hegel is developed by him: - The theory of objective idealism; - universal philosophical method - dialectics.
Objective idealism of G. Hegel
slide 16
The most important philosophical works of G. Hegel include: "Phenomenology of Spirit", "Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences", "Science of Logic", "Philosophy of Nature", "Philosophy of Spirit". "Philosophy of Law". In the doctrine of being G. Hegel identifies being and thinking. Mind, consciousness, idea have being, and being has consciousness: everything reasonable is real, and everything real is reasonable. G. Hegel derives a special philosophical concept - the "absolute idea" (world spirit). The absolute idea is the root cause of the entire surrounding world, its objects and phenomena, has self-consciousness and the ability to create.
Slide 17
The spirit, according to Hegel, has three varieties: subjective spirit - the soul, the consciousness of an individual person; Objective spirit - the next step of the spirit, "the spirit of society as a whole." The expression of the objective spirit is law, morality, civil society, the state; absolute spirit - the highest manifestation of the spirit, the eternally valid truth. Expression of the absolute spirit are: art, religion, philosophy.
Slide 18
Slide 19
The socio-philosophical concept of G. Hegel deserves the closest attention. Many of the findings are relevant today. In the "Philosophy of History" G. Hegel expressed a number of valuable conjectures related to understanding the historical pattern, the role of great people in history. G. Hegel understood the history of mankind not as a chain of random events. For him, it had a natural character, in which the world mind is revealed. Great people play a role in history insofar as "because they are the embodiment of the spirit of their time." The meaning of the whole world history is, according to G. Hegel, progress in the consciousness of nature - progress, which we must recognize in its necessity.
Slide 20
Materialistic traditions in German classical philosophy were developed by Ludwig Feuerbach.
Anthropological materialism L. Feuerbach
slide 21
In the theory of anthropological materialism, L. Feuerbach substantiates the following conclusions: · the only existing realities are nature and man; Man is a part of nature; Man is a unity of material and spiritual; Man must become the main interest of philosophy. Not thinking, not nature, but precisely man is the center of the whole methodology; The idea does not exist by itself, but is a product of human consciousness; · God as a separate and independent reality does not exist; God is a figment of man's imagination; nature (matter) is eternal and infinite, no one can create and no one can destroy; Everything that surrounds us (objects, phenomena) are various manifestations of matter.
slide 22
In the atheistic-anthropological theory of L. Feuerbach, the following main provisions are important: · There is no God as an independent reality; God is a product of human consciousness; · the thought of God - a superpowerful rational being humiliates a person, dulls his fear and affects; · God is not a creator, the true creator is man, and God is a creation of man, his mind; Religion is a deeply developed fantastic ideology and has nothing to do with reality; The roots of religion are in the feeling of a person's powerlessness before the higher world, his dependence on it.
slide 23
In the theory of knowledge, L. Feuerbach waged a sharp struggle against the agnosticism of I. Kant, declaring that the boundaries of knowledge are constantly expanding, that the human mind is capable of discovering the deepest secrets of nature in its development. However, Feuerbach defended materialistic sensationalism, since he considered only sensations, and not practice, as the basis of knowledge.
slide 24
From the point of view of methodology, L. Feuerbach's materialism is assessed as metaphysical, although there are elements of dialectics. Interesting guesses can be found in L. Feuerbach about the source of development - contradiction. He believes that opposites refer to the same kind of essence: good - evil (morality), pleasant - unpleasant (feelings), sweet - sour (taste), man - woman (human). The principle of development allowed L. Feuerbach to explain the emergence of man and his consciousness.
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German philosophy of the late 18th - first third of the 19th centuries, represented by the names of Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, Feuerbach, is deservedly called classical. The contribution of German classical philosophy to world philosophical thought is as follows: the development of a dialectical worldview; German classical philosophy significantly enriched the logical-theoretical apparatus; considered history as a holistic process, and also paid serious attention to the study of human essence.
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Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) - German philosopher, founder of German classical philosophy, standing on the verge of the Enlightenment and Romanticism. He combined, like no other, the speculative originality of Plato with the encyclopedic quality of Aristotle, and therefore his philosophy is considered the pinnacle of the entire history of philosophy until the 20th century.
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Immanuel Kant
All of Kant's work is conditionally divided into two periods: pre-critical and critical. Stage I (1747-1755) - Kant developed the problems that were posed by the previous philosophical thought, 1) developed a cosmogonic hypothesis of the origin of the solar system from a giant primordial gaseous nebula ("General Natural History and Theory of the Sky", 1755), 2) put forward the idea of distributing animals in order of their possible origin; 3) put forward the idea of the natural origin of human races; studied the role of ebbs and flows on our planet. Stage II (begins from 1770 or 1780s) - deals with issues of epistemology and in particular the process of cognition, reflects on metaphysical, that is, general philosophical problems of being, cognition, man, morality, state and law, aesthetics.
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Ethics of Immanuel Kant
The ethical teaching of Kant is set forth in the Critique of Practical Reason. There are two formulations of the categorical imperative: “Always act in such a way that the maxim (principle) of your behavior can become a universal law (act as you would wish everyone to act)”; “Treat humanity in your own person (just as in the person of everyone else) always only as an end and never as a means.” AT ethical doctrine a person is considered from two points of view: Man as a phenomenon; Man as a thing in itself.
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Gegel Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (August 27, 1770, Stuttgart - November 14, 1831, Berlin) - German philosopher, one of the creators of German classical philosophy and the philosophy of romanticism. Main works: "Science of Logic" "Phenomenology of Spirit" "Foundations of the Philosophy of Law" "Philosophy of History" "Philosophy of Religion" "Philosophical Propaedeutics"
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Philosophy of Hegel
The starting position of Hegel's philosophy is the identity of being and thinking, i.e. understanding real world as manifestations of ideas, concepts, spirit. Hegel considered this identity as a historically developing process of self-knowledge by the absolute idea of itself. According to Hegel, the absolute idea in its development goes through three stages: 1) the development of the idea in its own bosom, in the "element of pure thinking" - Logic; 2) the development of the idea in the form of "otherness", i.e. in the form of nature - Philosophy of nature; 3) development of ideas in thinking and history - Philosophy of spirit.
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Hegel's logical method
The Hegelian method consists in the successive generation of concepts by each other. Obviously, it must have a beginning: there must be some primary concept, a category from which all other categories could be consistently derived and which at the same time would not itself be mediated, determined by anything else. Such a category is existence. The beginning must be one and depend only on itself. The beginning cannot be defined, because there is nothing yet by which it can be defined, there is no other. Hegel calls his method speculation. Hegel begins the movement of his method, in the course of which all the richness of philosophical theory and, more broadly, the flourishing diversity of the entire universe will be consistently generated.
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Ludwig Andreas von Feuerbach (1804-1872) - an outstanding German philosopher, son of a criminologist, specialist in criminal law Paul Johann Anselm von Feuerbach. Major works: History of New Philosophy from Bacon to Spinoza (1833) Thoughts on Death and Immortality (1830) Essence of Religion Foundations of the Philosophy of the Future
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Feuerbach's philosophy
Feuerbach's philosophical development is best described by himself: "God was my first thought, reason was my second, man was my third and last." Feuerbach is convinced that sensibility is the only source of true knowledge. This inevitably leads him to the denial of the existence of general concepts and to the recognition of the true individual, concrete. Another characteristic feature of Feuerbach's theory of knowledge lies in his doctrine of theism. For him, the certainty of being is determined not only by its accessibility to a person's own feelings, but also by its reality for another. I know you before the awakening of my own self-consciousness.
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Anthropological materialism of Feuerbach
Feuerbach's materialism differs significantly from the materialism of the 18th century, because, unlike the latter, it does not reduce all reality to mechanical movement and considers nature not as a mechanism, but rather as an organism. It is characterized as anthropological, since the focus of Feuerbach is not an abstract concept of matter, as in most French materialists, but man as a psychophysical unity, the unity of soul and body. Based on this understanding of man, Feuerbach rejects his idealistic interpretation, in which man is considered primarily as a spiritual being. According to Feuerbach, the body in its entirety is precisely the essence of the human "I".
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Marx and Engels
Karl Heinrich Marx (1818-1883) - German philosopher, sociologist, economist, political journalist, public figure. His works formed dialectical and historical materialism in philosophy, the theory of surplus value in economics, and the theory of class struggle in politics.
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Dialectical materialism of Marx and Engels
Dialectical materialism- philosophy, asserting the (ontological) primacy of matter in relation to consciousness and the constant development of matter in time. According to dialectical materialism, matter is the only basis of the world, consciousness is a property of matter, the movement and development of the world is the result of overcoming its internal contradictions. Dialectical materialism is an integral part of Marxist theory, and not an independent philosophical doctrine.
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Principles of materialism
1) the principle of unity and integrity of being as a developing universal system, which includes all manifestations, all forms of reality from objective reality (matter) to subjective reality (thinking); 2) the principle of the materiality of the world, which states that matter is primary in relation to consciousness, is reflected in it and determines its content; (“It is not the consciousness of people that determines their being, but, on the contrary, their social being determines their consciousness. - K. Marx, “On the Critique of Political Economy”) 3) the principle of the cognizability of the world, based on the fact that the world around us is cognizable and that the measure of its cognition, which determines the degree of correspondence of our knowledge to objective reality, is social production practice; 4) the principle of development, summarizing the historical experience of mankind, the achievements of natural, social and technical sciences and on this basis, asserting that all phenomena in the world and the world as a whole are in continuous, constant, dialectical development, the source of which is the emergence and resolution of internal contradictions, leading to the denial of some states and the formation of fundamentally new qualitative phenomena and processes; 5) the principle of transforming the world, according to which the historical goal of the development of society is to achieve freedom, which ensures the all-round harmonious development of each individual, to reveal all his creative abilities on the basis of a radical transformation of society and the achievement of social justice and equality of members of society; 6) the principle of the partisanship of philosophy, which establishes the presence of a complex objective relationship between philosophical concepts and the worldview of man, on the one hand, and the social structure of society, on the other.
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German philosophy of the late 18th and first third of the 19th century, represented by the names of Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, Feuerbach, is deservedly called classical. The contribution of German classical philosophy to world philosophical thought is as follows: the development of a dialectical worldview; German classical philosophy has significantly enriched the logical and theoretical apparatus; considered history as a holistic process, and also paid serious attention to the study of human essence.
Immanuel Kant () - German philosopher, founder of German classical philosophy, standing on the verge of the Enlightenment and Romanticism. He combined, like no other, the speculative originality of Plato with the encyclopedic quality of Aristotle, and therefore his philosophy is considered the pinnacle of the entire history of philosophy until the 20th century.
Immanuel Kant All of Kant's work is conditionally divided into two periods: pre-critical and critical. Stage I (years) Kant developed the problems that were posed by previous philosophical thought, 1) developed a cosmogonic hypothesis of the origin of the solar system from a giant initial gaseous nebula (“General Natural History and Theory of the Sky”, 1755), 2) put forward the idea of the distribution of animals in order of their possible origin; 3) put forward the idea of the natural origin of human races; studied the role of ebbs and flows on our planet. Stage II (begins in 1770 or the 1900s) deals with issues of epistemology and, in particular, the process of cognition, reflects on metaphysical, that is, general philosophical problems of being, cognition, man, morality, state and law, and aesthetics.
Ethics of Immanuel Kant The ethical teaching of Kant is set forth in the Critique of Practical Reason. There are two formulations of the categorical imperative: “Always act in such a way that the maxim (principle) of your behavior can become a universal law (act as you would wish everyone to act)”; “Relate to humanity in your own person (as well as in the person of any other) always only as an end and never as a means.” In ethical teaching, a person is considered from two points of view: Man as a phenomenon; Man as a thing in itself.
Gegel Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (August 27, 1770, Stuttgart November 14, 1831, Berlin) German philosopher, one of the creators of German classical philosophy and the philosophy of romanticism. Main works: "Science of Logic" "Phenomenology of Spirit" "Foundations of the Philosophy of Law" "Philosophy of History" "Philosophy of Religion" "Philosophical Propaedeutics"
Philosophy of Hegel The starting point of Hegel's philosophy is the identity of being and thinking, that is, the understanding of the real world as a manifestation of an idea, concept, spirit. Hegel considered this identity as a historically developing process of self-knowledge by the absolute idea of itself. According to Hegel, the absolute idea in its development goes through three stages: 1) the development of the idea in its own bosom, in the "element of pure thinking" - Logic; 2) the development of the idea in the form of "other being", i.e. in the form of nature - Philosophy of nature; 3) development of ideas in thinking and history - Philosophy of spirit.
Hegel's logical method Hegel's logical method The Hegelian method consists in the successive generation of concepts by each other. Obviously, it must have a beginning: there must be some primary concept, a category from which all other categories could be consistently derived and which at the same time would not itself be mediated, determined by anything else. Such a category is existence. The beginning must be one and depend only on itself. The beginning cannot be defined, because there is nothing yet by which it can be defined, there is no other. Hegel calls his method speculation. Hegel begins the movement of his method, in the course of which all the richness of philosophical theory and, more broadly, the flourishing diversity of the entire universe will be consistently generated.
Ludwig Andreas von Feuerbach () an outstanding German philosopher, son of a criminologist, specialist in criminal law Paul Johann Anselm von Feuerbach. Major works: "History of New Philosophy from Bacon to Spinoza" (1833) "Thoughts on Death and Immortality" (1830) "The Essence of Religion" "Fundamentals of the Philosophy of the Future"
Feuerbach's philosophy Feuerbach's philosophical development is best described by himself: "God was my first thought, reason second, man third and last." Feuerbach is convinced that sensibility is the only source of true knowledge. This inevitably leads him to the denial of the existence of general concepts and to the recognition of the true individual, concrete. Another characteristic feature of Feuerbach's theory of knowledge lies in his doctrine of theism. For him, the certainty of being is determined not only by its accessibility to a person's own feelings, but also by its reality for another. I know you before the awakening of my own self-consciousness.
Feuerbach's Anthropological Materialism Feuerbach's materialism essentially differs from the materialism of the 18th century, because, unlike the latter, it does not reduce all reality to mechanical movement and considers nature not as a mechanism, but rather as an organism. It is characterized as anthropological, since Feuerbach's focus is not on the abstract concept of matter, as in most French materialists, but on man as a psychophysical unity, the unity of soul and body. Based on this understanding of man, Feuerbach rejects his idealistic interpretation, in which man is considered primarily as a spiritual being. According to Feuerbach, the body in its entirety is precisely the essence of the human "I".
Marx and Engels Karl Heinrich Marx () German philosopher, sociologist, economist, political journalist, public figure. His works formed dialectical and historical materialism in philosophy, the theory of surplus value in economics, and the theory of class struggle in politics Friedrich Engels () German philosopher, one of the founders of Marxism, friend, like-minded and co-author of Karl Marx.
Dialectical materialism of Marx and Engels Dialectical materialism is a philosophical doctrine that asserts the (ontological) primacy of matter in relation to consciousness and the constant development of matter in time. According to dialectical materialism, matter is the only basis of the world, consciousness is a property of matter, the movement and development of the world is the result of overcoming its internal contradictions. Dialectical materialism is an integral part of Marxist theory, and not an independent philosophical doctrine.
Principles of materialism 1) the principle of the unity and integrity of being as a developing universal system that includes all manifestations, all forms of reality from objective reality (matter) to subjective reality (thinking); 2) the principle of the materiality of the world, which states that matter is primary in relation to consciousness, is reflected in it and determines its content; (“It is not the consciousness of people that determines their being, but, on the contrary, their social being determines their consciousness.” K. Marx, “Towards a Critique of Political Economy”) 3) the principle of the cognizability of the world, based on the fact that the world around us is cognizable and its knowledge, which determines the degree of correspondence of our knowledge to objective reality, is social and industrial practice; 4) the principle of development, generalizing the historical experience of mankind, the achievements of the natural, social and technical sciences and on this basis asserting that all phenomena in the world and the world as a whole are in continuous, constant, dialectical development, the source of which is the emergence and resolution of internal contradictions, leading to the negation of some states and the formation of fundamentally new qualitative phenomena and processes; 5) the principle of transforming the world, according to which the historical goal of the development of society is to achieve freedom, which ensures the all-round harmonious development of each individual, to reveal all his creative abilities on the basis of a radical transformation of society and the achievement of social justice and equality of members of society; 6) the principle of the partisanship of philosophy, which establishes the presence of a complex objective relationship between philosophical concepts and the worldview of a person, on the one hand, and the social structure of society, on the other.
A priori terms - knowledge that precedes experience and is independent of it. The categorical imperative is a concept introduced by Kant within the framework of his concept of autonomous ethics and designed to unite the idea of the independence of moral principles from the external environment and the necessary unity of these principles. Logic is the science of forms, methods and laws of intellectual cognitive activity, formalized with the help of a logical language. The Absolute is a term denoting that which is impossible to understand. An idea is a mental prototype of any object, phenomenon, principle, highlighting its main, main and essential features. In philosophy, the intelligible and eternal prototype of reality.
Terms Absolute spirit - in the philosophical system of Hegel, the final link in the development of the spirit, passing through the stages. Hegel's dialectic is the logical form and method of reflective theoretical thinking, which has as its object the contradictions of the conceivable content of this thinking.
