Types and forms of knowledge. Types of knowledge (religious, scientific, philosophical, artistic, everyday, practical, social) What kind of knowledge is based on the image
| Sensory cognition - cognition with the help of the senses (sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch). | Rational knowledge is knowledge through thinking. | Intuition is the ability to directly comprehend the truth as a result of "illumination", "influence", "enlightenment" without relying on logical justifications and evidence. |
| Forms sensory knowledge: 1. sensation is a reflection of the individual properties of an object, phenomenon, process; 2. perception - a sensual image of a holistic picture of an object; 3. representation - the image of the object of knowledge, imprinted in memory | Forms rational knowledge: 1. a concept is a thought that affirms the general and essential properties of an object, phenomenon, process; 2. a judgment is a thought that affirms or denies something about an object, phenomenon, process; 3. inference (conclusion) - the mental connection of several judgments and the selection of a new judgment from them. Types of reasoning: · inductive (from particular to general); deductive (from general to particular); · Similarly. | Kinds intuitions: · mystical – connected with life experiences, emotions; Intellectual - associated with mental activity. |
| Features of sensory cognition: immediacy; visibility and objectivity; reproduction external properties and sides. | Features of rational cognition: · reliance on the results of sensory cognition; · abstractness and generalization; Reproduction of internal regular connections and relationships. | Features of intuition: · suddenness; Incomplete awareness The direct nature of the emergence of knowledge. |
| Knowledge is the unity of sensory and rational knowledge. They are closely related. | Intuition is a peculiar form of conjugation of sensual and rational in cognition |
The question of the place of sensory and rational cognition is considered differently. There are directly opposite points of view.
Empiricism(from Gr. emperies - experience) - the only source of all our knowledge is sensory experience.
Rationalism(from lat. ratio - mind, mind) - our knowledge can only be obtained with the help of the mind, without relying on feelings.
It is obvious that one cannot oppose the sensual and the rational in cognition, the two stages of cognition appear as a single process. The difference between them is not temporary, but qualitative: the first stage is the lowest, the second is the highest. Knowledge is the unity of sensual and rational knowledge of reality. Outside of sensory representation, man has no real knowledge. For example, many concepts modern science very abstract, and yet they are not free from sensuous content. Not only because these concepts ultimately owe their origin to the experience of people, but also because in their form they exist in the form of a system of sensually perceived signs. On the other hand, knowledge cannot do without the rational data of experience and their inclusion in the results and course of the intellectual development of mankind.
2. Emotions(affective form of manifestation of moral feelings) and feelings(emotions expressed in concepts - love, hatred, etc.) - motivate the stability of the interests and goals of the subject of knowledge
3. Delusion - the content of the knowledge of the subject, which does not correspond to the reality of the object, but is taken as the truth. Sources of misconceptions: errors in the transition from sensory to rational knowledge, incorrect transfer of someone else's experience.
4. Lies - deliberate distortion of the image of the object.
5. Knowledge- the result of cognition of reality, the content of consciousness obtained by a person in the course of active reflection, ideal reproduction of objective regular connections and relationships real world. The ambiguity of the term "knowledge":
knowledge as abilities, skills skills based on awareness;
knowledge as cognitively meaningful information;
knowledge as a relationship of man to reality.
6. Types of knowledge:
Worldly - is built on common sense(It is empirical in nature. It is based on common sense and everyday consciousness. It is the most important indicative basis for the everyday behavior of people, their relationship with each other and with nature. It boils down to stating facts and describing them)
Practical - based on actions, mastering things, transforming the world
Artistic - is built on the image (A holistic display of the world and the person in it. It is built on the image, and not on the concept)
Scientific - is built on concepts (Understanding reality in its past, present and future, reliable generalization of facts. Provides foresight of various phenomena. Reality is clothed in the form of abstract concepts and categories, general principles and laws, which often take on extremely abstract forms)
Rational - a reflection of reality in logical concepts, based on rational thinking
Irrational - a reflection of reality in emotions, passions, experiences, intuition, will, abnormal and paradoxical phenomena; does not obey the laws of logic and science.
Personal (implicit) - depends on the abilities of the subject and on the characteristics of his intellectual activity
7. Forms of knowledge:
Scientific - objective, systematically organized and justified knowledge
Unscientific - fragmented, non-systematic knowledge that is not formalized and not described by laws
Pre-scientific - prototype, prerequisites for scientific knowledge
Parascientific - incompatible with existing scientific knowledge
Pseudo-scientific - deliberately using speculation and prejudice
Anti-scientific - utopian and deliberately distorting the idea of reality
Truth and its criteria. Relativity of truth.
In many ways, the problem of the reliability of our knowledge about the world is determined by the answer to the fundamental question of the theory of knowledge: "What is truth?"
1. In the history of philosophy, there were different views on the possibility of obtaining reliable knowledge:
Empiricism - all knowledge about the world is justified only by experience (F. Bacon)
Sensationalism - only with the help of sensations you can know the world (D. Hume)
Rationalism - reliable knowledge can only be gleaned from the mind itself (R. Descartes)
Agnosticism - "thing in itself" is unknowable (I. Kant)
· Skepticism – receive reliable knowledge about the world it is impossible (M. Montaigne)
True there is a process, and not a one-time act of comprehending the object immediately in full.
Truth is one, but objective, absolute and relative aspects are distinguished in it, which can also be considered as relatively independent truths.
objective truth- this is the content of knowledge that does not depend on man or on humanity.
absolute truth- this is exhaustive reliable knowledge about nature, man and society; knowledge that can never be refuted.
Relative truth- this is incomplete, inaccurate knowledge corresponding to a certain level of development of society, which determines the ways of obtaining this knowledge; it is knowledge that depends on certain conditions, place and time of its receipt.
The difference between absolute and relative truth (or absolute and relative in objective truth) is in the degree of accuracy and completeness of the reflection of reality. Truth is always concrete, it is always associated with a certain place, time and circumstances.
Not everything in our lives can be judged in terms of truth or error (falsehood). So, we can talk about different assessments of historical events, alternative interpretations of works of art, etc.
2. Truth- this is knowledge corresponding to its subject, coinciding with it. Other definitions:
1. correspondence of knowledge to reality;
2. what is confirmed by experience;
3. some agreement, convention;
4. property of self-consistency of knowledge;
5. the usefulness of the acquired knowledge for practice.
3. Criteria of truth- that which certifies the truth and makes it possible to distinguish it from error.
1. compliance with the laws of logic;
2. compliance with previously discovered laws of science;
3. compliance with fundamental laws;
4. simplicity, economy of the formula;
5. paradoxical idea;
6. practice.
4. Practice- an integral organic system of active material activity of people, aimed at transforming reality, carried out in a certain socio-cultural context.
Forms practices:
1. material production (labor, transformation of nature);
2. social action (revolutions, reforms, wars, etc.);
3. scientific experiment.
Functions practices:
1. source of knowledge (practical needs brought to life the sciences that exist today.);
2. the basis of cognition (a person does not just observe or contemplate the world around him, but in the process of his life activity transforms it);
3. the purpose of cognition (for this purpose, a person cognizes the world around him, reveals the laws of its development in order to use the results of cognition in his practical activities);
4. the criterion of truth (until some position, expressed in the form of a theory, concept, simple inference, is verified by experience, is not put into practice, it will remain just a hypothesis (assumption)).
Meanwhile, practice is both definite and indefinite, absolute and relative. Absolute in the sense that only developing practice can finally prove any theoretical or other provisions. At the same time, this criterion is relative, since the practice itself develops, improves, and therefore cannot immediately and completely prove certain conclusions obtained in the process of cognition. Therefore, in philosophy, the idea of complementarity is put forward: the leading criterion of truth is practice, which includes material production, accumulated experience, experiment - is supplemented by the requirements of logical consistency and, in many cases, the practical usefulness of certain knowledge.
Thinking and activity.
1. Activity - a way of relating to the outside world, which consists in transforming and subordinating it to the goals of a person (conscious, productive, transformative and social character)
2. Differences between human activity and animal activity
| human activities | Animal activity |
| human activities | Animal activity |
| Adaptation to the natural environment through its large-scale transformation, leading to the creation of an artificial environment for human existence. Man keeps his natural organization unchanged, while at the same time changing his way of life. | Adaptation to environmental conditions primarily by restructuring one's own organism, the mechanism of which is mutational changes fixed by the environment |
| Goal setting in activity | Expediency in behavior |
| Conscious goal setting associated with the ability to analyze the situation (discover cause-and-effect relationships, anticipate results, think through the most appropriate ways to achieve them) | Obedience to instinct, actions are initially programmed |
3. Subject and object of activity
4. Structure of activity: Motive (a set of external and internal conditions that cause the activity of the subject and determine the direction of activity. The motives can be: needs; social attitudes; beliefs; interests; drives and emotions; ideals) - Purpose (this is a conscious image the result to which the human action is directed. Activity consists of a chain of actions) - Methods - Process (Actions) - Result
5. Types of motives: needs, social. attitudes, beliefs, interests, drives and emotions (unconscious), ideals
Types of actions according to M. Weber:
Purposeful rational (Characterized by a rationally set and thoughtful goal. The individual whose behavior is focused on the goal, means and side results of his actions acts purposefully.);
Value-rational (Characterized by a conscious determination of one's orientation and a consistently planned orientation towards it. But its meaning is not to achieve any goal, but in the fact that the individual follows his convictions about duty, dignity, beauty, piety, etc.) ;
affective (Due to the emotional state of the individual. He acts under the influence of passion, if he seeks to immediately satisfy his need for revenge, pleasure, devotion, etc.);
traditional (Based on a long habit. Often this is an automatic reaction to a habitual irritation in the direction of a once learned setting)
The activity of people unfolds in various spheres of society, its direction, content, means are infinitely diverse.
6. Types of activity:
6.1 work (aimed at achieving the goal, practical utility, skill, personal development, transformation)
6.2 game (the process of the game is more important than its goal; the dual nature of the game: real and conditional)
6.3 teaching (knowledge of the new)
6.4 communication (exchange of ideas, emotions)
6.4.1 two-way and one-way (communication); concept of dialogue
6.4.2 structure: subject - goal - content - means - recipient
6.4.3 classifications: direct - indirect, direct - indirect
6.4.4 types of subjects of communication: real, illusory, imaginary
6.4.5 functions: socialization (formation and development of interpersonal relations as a condition for the formation of a person as a person); cognitive, psychological, identifications (an expression of a person's involvement in a group: “I am mine” or “I am a stranger”); organizational
7. Activities:
7.1 Material (material-production and socially transformative) and spiritual (cognitive, value-oriented, predictive)
7.2 By subject: individual - collective
7.3 By nature: reproductive - creative
7.4 According to legal compliance: legal - illegal
7.5 According to moral standards: moral - immoral
7.6 In relation to social progress: progressive - reactionary
7.7 Depending on spheres public life: economic, social, political, spiritual
7.8 According to the features of the manifestation of human activity: external - internal
8. Creation- a type of activity that generates something qualitatively new that has never existed before (the nature of an independent activity or its component).
9. Mechanisms creative activity:
combination,
the imagination,
fantasy,
intuition
Needs and Interests
In order to develop, a person is forced to satisfy various needs, which are called needs.
Need- this is the need of a person for what constitutes a necessary condition for his existence. In the motives (from the Latin movere - set in motion, push) of activity, human needs are manifested.
Types of human needs
Biological (organic, material) - needs for food, clothing, housing, etc.
Social - the need to communicate with other people, in social activities, in public recognition, etc.
Spiritual (ideal, cognitive) - the need for knowledge, creative activity, creating beauty, etc.
Biological, social and spiritual needs are interrelated. Basically biological needs in humans, unlike animals, become social. Most people social needs dominate the ideal: the need for knowledge often acts as a means to acquire a profession, to occupy a worthy position in society.
There are other classifications of needs, for example, the classification was developed by the American psychologist A. Maslow:
| Basic Needs | |
| Primary (congenital) | Secondary (acquired) |
| Physiological: in the reproduction of the genus, food, respiration, clothing, housing, rest, etc. | Social: in social connections, communication, affection, care for another person and attention to oneself, participation in joint activities |
| Existential (lat. exsistentia - existence): in the security of one's existence, comfort, job security, accident insurance, confidence in tomorrow etc. | Prestigious: in self-respect, respect from others, recognition, achievement of success and appreciation, career growth Spiritual: in self-actualization, self-expression, self-realization |
The needs of each next level become urgent when the previous ones are satisfied.
It should be remembered about the reasonable limitation of needs, because, firstly, not all human needs can be fully satisfied, and secondly, the needs should not contradict the moral standards of society.
Reasonable Needs- these are the needs that help the development in a person of his truly human qualities: the desire for truth, beauty, knowledge, the desire to bring good to people, etc.
Needs underlie the emergence of interests and inclinations.
Interest(lat. interest - to matter) - a purposeful attitude of a person to any object of his need.
People's interests are directed not so much to the objects of needs, but to those social conditions that make these objects more or less accessible, primarily material and spiritual goods that ensure the satisfaction of needs.
Interests are determined by the position of various social groups and individuals in society. They are more or less recognized by people and are the most important incentives for various types activities.
There are several classifications of interests:
according to their carrier: individual; group; the whole society.
by focus: economic; social; political; spiritual.
Interest must be distinguished inclination. The concept of "interest" expresses the focus on a particular subject. The concept of "inclination" expresses the focus on a particular activity.
Interest is not always combined with inclination (much depends on the degree of accessibility of a particular activity).
The interests of a person express the orientation of his personality, which largely determines his life path, the nature of his activity, etc.
Freedom and necessity human activity
1. Liberty- a multi-valued word. Extremes in understanding freedom:
Essence of freedom- choice associated with intellectual and emotional-volitional tension (burden of choice).
Social conditions for the realization of freedom of choice of a free person:
On the one hand - social norms, on the other hand - forms of social activity;
On the one hand - the place of a person in society, on the other hand - the level of development of society;
socialization.
1. Freedom is a specific way of being of a person, associated with his ability to choose a decision and perform an act in accordance with his goals, interests, ideals and assessments, based on the awareness of the objective properties and relations of things, the laws of the surrounding world.
2. Responsibility - an objective, historically specific type of relationship between an individual, a team, society from the point of view of the conscious implementation of the mutual requirements placed on them.
3. Types of responsibility:
· Historical, political, moral, legal, etc.;
Individual (personal), group, collective.
· Social responsibility - the tendency of a person to behave in accordance with the interests of other people.
· Legal responsibility - responsibility before the law (disciplinary, administrative, criminal; material)
Responsibility- a socio-philosophical and sociological concept that characterizes an objective, historically specific type of relationship between an individual, a team, society from the point of view of the conscious implementation of the mutual requirements placed on them.
Responsibility, accepted by a person as the basis of his personal moral position, acts as the foundation of the internal motivation of his behavior and actions. The regulator of such behavior is conscience.
Social responsibility is expressed in the tendency of a person to behave in accordance with the interests of other people.
As human freedom develops, responsibility increases. But its focus is gradually shifting from the collective (collective responsibility) to the person himself (individual, personal responsibility).
Only a free and responsible person can fully realize himself in social behavior and thereby reveal his potential to the maximum extent.
The systemic structure of society: elements and subsystems
1. The concept of society. Society is a complex and ambiguous concept
A. In the broadest sense of the word
· This is a part of the material world, isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, which includes: ways, interactions of people; forms of association of people
B. In the narrow sense of the word
· A circle of people united by a common goal, interests, origin(for example, a society of numismatists, a noble assembly)
· Separate specific society, country, state, region(for example, modern Russian society, French society)
· Historical stage in the development of mankind(e.g. feudal society, capitalist society)
· humanity as a whole
2. Functions of society
Production of material goods and services
Distribution of products of labor (activities)
Regulation and management of activities and behavior
Human reproduction and socialization
Spiritual production and regulation of people's activity
3. Public relations - diverse forms of human interaction, as well as connections that arise between different social groups (or within them)
Society is a set of social relations. The essence of society is in the relationships between people.
· Material relations - arise and develop directly in the course of practical activity of a person outside his consciousness and independently of him. This:
industrial relations
· Environmental relations
・Procreation relationships
· Spiritual (ideal) relations - are formed, preliminary "passing through consciousness" of people, are determined by their spiritual values. This:
The moral relationship
· Political relations
· Legal relations
・Artistic Relationships
· Philosophical attitudes
· Religious relations
Having a certain structure and stages associated with the stages of formation and development of society. Human knowledge develops along with the complication of practical activity.
Exist different types human knowledge. One of the ancient forms are religious and philosophical. The founder of positivism, O. Comte, in the middle of the 19th century, proposed a concept that reflects the types of knowledge. In his concept, he considered three forms, successively replacing one another.
He considered religious knowledge to be the first form. It is based on individual faith and tradition.
The second form is philosophical knowledge. Based on the author's intuition or other concept and is speculative and rational in nature.
Scientific knowledge is the third form. It is based on fixing facts against the background of a purposeful experiment or observation.
Today, it is obvious that all these types of knowledge develop in parallel and exist in the same way as plants and animals exist in natural conditions.
It also takes place. According to the concept of M. Polanyi, the types of knowledge are classified in accordance with personal characteristics. The English philosopher proceeded from the fact that knowledge is an active comprehension of things - this is an action that requires special tools and special art. In the "personal", according to Polanyi, not only reality is captured, but also the personality with its interest in cognition. In this case, there is a complex not only of any statements, but also of the experiences of the individual. Thus, Polanyi singled out the following types of knowledge:
- Explicit, articulated, expressed in theories, judgments, concepts.
- Implicit, implicit, not amenable to full reflection of human experience.
Implicit knowledge is embodied in bodily skills, practical skills, perception schemes. It is not fully reflected in textbooks, but is transmitted through communication and personal contact.
As the main component of the structure of general education, knowledge is the result of knowing the laws of nature, thinking, society, and reality. This result reflects the generalized human experience that has been accumulated in the course of social historical practice.
Educational content includes such types of knowledge as:
- The main terms and concepts that reflect reality. In addition to everyday reality, they also express
- Facts of daily reality and science. They are used to defend and prove their ideas.
- Basic scientific laws. They reveal the relationship between various phenomena and objects.
- Theories that contain a body of scientific knowledge about a certain system of objects, objects, the relationship between them, as well as methods for predicting and explaining phenomena in a particular
- Appraisal knowledge. They reflect the norms of attitudes towards various life phenomena.
- Knowledge of management methods scientific activity, as well as the history of the acquisition of information.
All of these types have features associated with the functions and technologies used in teaching.
Knowledge can also be:
- Emotional and rational.
- Essentialistic (based on the use of quantitative means of analysis) and phenomenological (based on the use of "qualitative" concepts).
- Theoretical and empirical (experimental).
- Private scientific and philosophical.
- Humanities and natural sciences.
From a pedagogical and psychological point of view, the differences between rational (scientific) and sensory (humanitarian) cognition are of greatest interest.
Cognition is the process of comprehension by a person of new, previously unknown knowledge.
Structure learning process:
- The subject of cognition is an actively acting individual, social group or society as a whole, endowed with consciousness and goal setting.
- The object of knowledge is what the cognitive activity of the subject is aimed at. It can be animate (the person himself, animal) and inanimate (phenomena of nature); material (really existing object) or ideal (hypothesis, theory).
- The result of cognition - knowledge - is a product of the relation of thought to reality, existing in a logically linguistic form, in the form of concepts, judgments, symbols, signs.
Characteristics of the main types of knowledge
The question of the relationship between the sensual and the rational caused the emergence of two philosophical trends.
Empiricism- the only source of all our knowledge is sensory experience.
Rationalism- our knowledge can be obtained only with the help of the mind, without relying on feelings.
But it is impossible to oppose the sensual and the rational in cognition, since the two stages of cognition appear as a single process. The difference between them is not temporary, but qualitative: the first stage is the lowest, the second is the highest. Knowledge is the unity of sensual and rational knowledge of reality.
Knowledge- the result of cognition of reality, the content of consciousness.
Types of knowledge:
Delusion- knowledge that does not correspond to a real object, but is accepted as truth. A lie is a deliberate distortion of the image of an object.
Zhiteiskoe- based on common sense, formed as a result of people's daily lives, reduced to stating facts and describing them.
Practical- the basis is the activity of people to fulfill their needs.
artistic- is built on the image, characterized by emotionality, subjectivity.
Scientific- characterized by the desire for objectivity, consistency, consistency, exists in the form of concepts and categories, general principles, laws, theories.
Rational- reflects reality in terms, is based on rational thinking.
Irrational- reflects reality in emotions, often based on intuition, does not obey the laws of logic.
Forms of knowledge
| Scientific- objective, systematically organized and justified knowledge | |
| empirical level methods: – observation; – experiment; - description. |
theoretical level methods: – induction (from particular to general); - deduction (from the general to the particular); - analysis (decomposition of the whole into parts) - synthesis (combining individual knowledge into a single whole) |
| Unscientific- disparate, unsystematized knowledge that is not formalized and not described by laws | |
| pre-scientific - prerequisites for scientific knowledge parascientific - incompatible with existing scientific knowledge pseudoscientific - deliberately using speculation and prejudice anti-scientific - utopian and deliberately distorting the idea of reality |
|
Features of social cognition:
- the subject and object of cognition coincide (society studies itself, the sociologist sees the process from the inside, since he himself is a participant in social relations. Therefore, a personal assessment of social phenomena plays an important role);
- the possibilities of the researcher are limited (it is not always possible to conduct an experiment);
- the complexity and variability of the object of study gives rise to a pluralism of points of view on society.
When studying society, one should apply concrete historical approach:
- to establish the relationship between the past and the future;
- identifying common patterns, it is necessary to remember the originality and uniqueness of the historical path of peoples, countries, regions;
- to study social phenomena in their diversity and interdependence;
- to consider the current activity as a result of the previous one.
Features of cognition by means of art:
- emotional coloring;
- carried out with the help of images.
Image- this is a reflection of reality, which has certain properties of a real-life object, refracted through inner world creator (artist, director, writer).
Canon- a set of applied rules for creating an image. It is characterized by the peculiarities of the worldview of the era. (For example, in the period of antiquity, the beauty of the human body, proportionality is sung; in the Middle Ages, the body is perceived as something sinful, therefore it is depicted flat, covered with clothes).
1. Knowledge of the world. Types of human knowledge.
Knowledge is the result of cognition of reality, the content of consciousness obtained by a person in the course of active reflection, ideal reproduction of objective regular connections and relations of the real world.
Types of knowledge:
Worldly - is built on common sense (It is empirical in nature. It is based on common sense and everyday consciousness. It is the most important indicative basis for the everyday behavior of people, their relationship with each other and with nature. It boils down to stating facts and describing them)
Practical - based on actions, mastering things, transforming the world
Artistic - is built on the image (A holistic display of the world and the person in it. It is built on the image, and not on the concept)
Scientific - is built on concepts (Understanding reality in its past, present and future, reliable generalization of facts. Provides foresight of various phenomena. - Reality is clothed in the form of abstract concepts and categories, general principles and laws, which often acquire extremely abstract shapes)
Rational - a reflection of reality in logical concepts, based on rational thinking
Irrational - a reflection of reality in emotions, passions, experiences, intuition, will, abnormal and paradoxical phenomena; does not obey the laws of logic and science.
Personal (implicit) - depends on the abilities of the subject and on the characteristics of his intellectual activity
Forms of knowledge:
1 Scientific - objective, systematically organized and justified knowledge
2 Non-scientific - disparate, non-systematic knowledge that is not formalized and not described by laws
3 Pre-scientific - prototype, prerequisites for scientific knowledge
4 Parascientific - inconsistent with existing scientific knowledge
5 Pseudo-scientific - deliberately using speculation and prejudice
6 Anti-scientific - utopian and deliberately distorting the idea of reality
Cognition is the process of obtaining knowledge. In the process of cognition, there are always two sides: the subject of cognition and the object of cognition. In a narrow sense, the subject of cognition usually means a cognizing person endowed with will and consciousness, in a broad sense - the whole society. The object of cognition, respectively, is either a cognizable object, or, in a broad sense, the entire surrounding world within the boundaries in which individuals and society as a whole interact with it.
Exist two stages of cognitive activity.
On the first one, which is called sensual (sensitive) cognition (from German sensitw - perceived by the senses), a person receives information about objects and phenomena of the surrounding world with the help of the senses.
The forms of sensory cognition are:
a) sensation, which is a reflection of individual properties and qualities of objects of the surrounding world that directly affect the senses;
b) perception, during which a holistic image is formed in the subject of cognition, reflecting objects and their properties that directly affect the senses;
c) representation is a form of cognition in which the sensory reflection (sensory image) of objects and phenomena is preserved in consciousness, which allows it to be reproduced mentally even if it is absent and does not affect the senses.
The second stage of cognitive activity is rational knowledge(from lat. ratio - mind). At this stage, relying on the data obtained as a result of the direct interaction of a person with the surrounding worldsm, with the help of thinking, they are streamlined and an attempt is made to comprehend the essence of cognizable objects and phenomena.
The forms of rational cognition are:
A) The concept is a form (kind) of thought that reflects the general and essential features of cognizable objects or phenomena.
b) Judgment is a form of thought in which a connection is established between separate concepts and with the help of this connection something is affirmed or denied.
c) Inference is called obtaining new judgments on the basis of existing ones by using the laws of logical thinking.
Rational cognition is closely connected with the reflected reality, that is, with sensory cognition, which serves as the basis for it. However, unlike sensory cognition, which exists in the form of images, the results of rational cognition are fixed in the form of signs or in language. Thus, human thinking, based on sensory experience, by comparison, assimilation, generalization, abstraction, transforms the sensory image, and fixes the results of the transformation in a sign form.
The essence of the process of cognition is to obtain the most objective, complete and accurate knowledge about the surrounding world. Various philosophical schools answered the question about the possibility of knowing the world and obtaining true knowledge in different ways. Agnostics believed that it was impossible to obtain reliable knowledge, empiricists believed that this could be done only with the help of sensations, and rationalists argued that only reason is the criterion of truth.
In the history of philosophy, there have been various definitions of the concept of "truth". The most frequently used is the following: truth is the correspondence of the acquired knowledge to the content of the object of knowledge. characteristic feature truth is the presence in it of an objective and subjective side. The objective side shows us the truth in that part of it, the content of which does not depend on us, since it exists in objective reality. The subjective side points to the fact that in its form the truth is always subjective, since when it is received in the process of cognition, the interaction of the object and the subject of cognition takes place, in which the consciousness of the latter takes a direct part.
It is customary to single out absolute truth and relative truth. Absolute truth is called complete, unchanging, once and for all established knowledge about any subject or phenomenon. However, in reality, this is practically unattainable. In most cases, we are dealing with relative truth (or truths), which is incomplete, limited knowledge, true only under certain conditions, which a person (humanity) possesses at a given stage of his development.
The driving force of the process of cognition, as well as the criterion of truth, is practice. Moreover, this or that type of cognition has as a criterion of truth the form of practice corresponding to it: everyday practice, observation, experiment, etc. opportunities to rely on practice (for example, identifying logical contradictions in mathematical reasoning).
2. Crime, its types.
Criminal legal relations are relations between a criminal and the state regarding a crime regulated by the norms of criminal law.
The branch of Russian law that regulates relations that arise in connection with the commission of a crime is criminal law.
Criminal law is a set of legal norms established by the highest bodies of state power that determine the criminality and punishability of an act, the grounds for criminal liability, the goals and system of punishments, the general principles and conditions for their appointment, as well as the conditions for exemption from criminal liability and punishment.
No other branch of law regulates criminal law relations.
Sources of criminal law .
The only source of Russian criminal law is the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation (CC). The general principles and foundations of criminal law are established by the Constitution of the Russian Federation.
New laws providing for criminal liability should be included in the Criminal Code.
The rules of criminal proceedings are collected in the Code of Criminal Procedure (CPC RF).
What is a crime ?
A crime is a guilty socially dangerous act prohibited by the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation under the threat of punishment.
Classification of crimes .
According to the object of the crime :
1) crimes against a person;
2) crimes in the sphere of economy;
3) crimes against public safety and public order;
4) crimes against state power;
5) crimes against military service;
6) crimes against the peace and security of mankind.
By the nature and degree of public danger :
1) crimes of minor gravity (up to 2 years in prison);
2) crimes of medium gravity: reckless acts (more than 2 years in prison), intentional acts (up to 5 years in prison);
3) grave crimes (up to 10 years in prison);
4) especially serious crimes (over 10 years of imprisonment or more severe punishment).
Guilt is the mental attitude of a person to a crime committed by him, expressed in the form of intent or negligence. A prerequisite for guilt is the sanity of a person and the achievement of the age of criminal responsibility established by law.
Depending on the form of guilt, crimes are divided into intentional and committed by negligence.
Forms of guilt:
1) intentional with direct intent;
2) intentional with indirect intent;
3) careless due to frivolity;
4) careless due to negligence.
3. Criminal liability.
What is criminal liability ?
Criminal liability is a kind of legal liability as a duty of a person to answer (to suffer hardships provided for by law) for a crime committed.
This is the most stringent type of legal liability.
Signs of criminal liability:
1) the existence of a list of crimes for which criminal liability is possible;
2) classifying the act as a crime only on the basis of the law;
3) consideration of the criminal case only by the court;
4) special procedural order;
5) the possibility of applying preventive measures (a written undertaking not to leave, arrest, detention)
6) only an individual can be subjected (is of a personal nature);
7) variety and special severity of criminal punishment, extremely unfavorable consequences for the convict (imprisonment, life imprisonment, death penalty);
8) the presence of a special condition after serving a sentence that limits the legal status of a person - a criminal record.
Grounds for applying criminal liability :
1) Commitment by a person of a socially dangerous act containing all the elements of a crime ( factual basis);
2) the existence of criminal law norms that determine the content of the committed act and establish punishment for it ( legal basis).
Criminal liability arises from the moment a crime is committed, is implemented - from the moment a person is brought to justice, terminates - with an act of amnesty, pardon, with the removal or cancellation of a criminal record.
Types of criminal penalties.
Criminal punishment is a measure of state coercion. Appointed by a court verdict and provided for by the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation.
1) A fine is a monetary penalty.
2) Deprivation of the right to hold certain positions or engage in certain activities.
3) Compulsory work - the performance by a convict in his free time of work of free socially useful work.
4) Correctional labor - are served at the place of work of the convict.
5) Confiscation of property - compulsory gratuitous seizure to the state ownership of all or part of the property that is the property of the convict.
6) Restriction of freedom - the detention of a convicted person in a special institution without isolation from society in the conditions of supervision over him.
7) Arrest - keeping the convict in conditions of strict isolation from society.
8) Deprivation of liberty for a certain period.
9) Life imprisonment.
10) The death penalty. In the Russian Federation, a moratorium has been imposed on the death penalty.
4. Criminal process.
What is a criminal process?
Criminal process (criminal proceedings) - activities for the investigation and resolution of criminal cases.
Participants (subjects) of the criminal process :
1) Members of the prosecution.
The court is either single-handed, or (for grave and especially grave crimes) composed of three judges or with the participation of jurors.
The body of inquiry, the interrogator conduct an inquiry (urgent investigative actions) and an investigation on simple cases.
The investigator conducts a preliminary, i.e. prejudicial investigation.
The prosecutor oversees the investigation and inquiry and supports the prosecution at trial.
The victim speaks on behalf of the prosecution, i.e. person harmed by the crime.
2) Defense members.
Suspect, i.e. a person suspected of a crime.
The rights of the suspect: filing a petition, refusing to testify, contacting a defense lawyer.
The accused is the person who has been charged.
Rights of the accused : meeting alone with the defense counsel in case of arrest, familiarization with the case after the completion of the investigation, obtaining an indictment.
The accused after the transfer of the case to the court is called the defendant and has equal rights with the accuser.
Defender - a person who protects the rights and legitimate interests of the suspect, accused or defendant.
3) Facilitators of the process: witnesses, experts, specialists, translators, witnesses.
Principles of criminal procedure :
1) the principle of legality (Article 15 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 7 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);
2) the principle of administration of justice only by the court (Articles 47, 118 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 8 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);
3) the principle of respect for the honor and dignity of the individual (Article 21 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 9 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);
4) inviolability of the person (Article 22 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 10 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);
5) protection of the rights and freedoms of man and citizen in criminal proceedings (Articles 2, 45, 46, 51, 52, 53 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 11 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);
6) inviolability of the home (Article 25 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 12 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);
7) secrecy of correspondence, telephone and other conversations, sentry, telegraph and other messages (Article 23 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 13 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);
8) presumption of innocence (Article 49 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 14 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);
9) competitiveness of the parties (Article 23 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 15 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);
Competitiveness and equality of the parties :
1. the functions of accusation, defense and resolution of a criminal case are separated from each other; they cannot be assigned to the same body or the same official;
2. examination of evidence is carried out by the parties of the prosecution (public prosecutor, victim, civil plaintiff and their representatives) and defense (defender, civil defendant and his representative);
3. The parties to the prosecution and defense have equal rights before the court to file challenges and motions, present evidence, participate in their study, speak in the parties' debates, and submit written statements to the court on the issues specified in paragraphs 1-6 of part 1 of Art. 299 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation, for consideration of other issues arising in the course of the trial;
4. the court is not a body of criminal prosecution, does not act on the side of the prosecution or the side of the defense;
5. court creates the necessary conditions for the fulfillment by the parties of their procedural obligations and the exercise of the rights granted to them, and also resolves a criminal case.
10) providing the suspect and the accused with the right to defense (Article 48 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 16 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);
11) freedom of assessment of evidence (Article 120 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 17 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);
12) the language of criminal proceedings (Article 26 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 18 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);
13) the right to appeal against procedural actions and decisions (Articles 45, 46 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 19 of the Code of Criminal Procedure).
Evidence in criminal proceedings :
1) testimony of the accused, victim, witness, expert;
2 things;
3) protocols of investigative and judicial actions;
4) audio and video recordings.
One confession of the accused is not enough. It is evaluated only in conjunction with other evidence and circumstances of the case.
Stages of the criminal process .
Pre-trial proceedings .
1) Initiation of a criminal case: reason (statement of a crime, confession); grounds (availability of sufficient data pointing to the crime); registration (decision on the initiation of a criminal case).
2) Preliminary investigation (inquiry, investigation):
* investigative actions are carried out by order of the investigator (interrogation, confrontation, identification, seizure of documents) or on the basis of a court decision (custody, house arrest, search, establishment of control and recording of telephone and other conversations);
* prosecution of a person(decree on involvement as an accused, presentation of pre-trial charges, familiarization of the accused with the case);
* closing indictment(compiled by the investigator and sent to the prosecutor's office);
* verification of investigative materials by the prosecutor.
Court proceedings .
1) Preparation for the court session (preliminary hearing).
The judge must decide whether to order a preliminary hearing, remand, stay or dismiss the case, or try it with a jury or set a trial.
2) Trial:
* preparatory stage (the judge checks the turnout, resolves petitions);
* judicial investigation (statement by the prosecutor of the indictment, interrogation of the defendant, interrogation of witnesses);
* debate of the parties, remarks of the parties;
* the last word of the defendant;
* pronouncement of judgment.
3) Proceedings in the court of second instance take place in the order of appeal and cassation appeals judicial decisions that have not entered into force.
4) Execution of the sentence.
Knowledge- the result of cognition of reality, the content of consciousness obtained by a person in the course of active reflection, ideal reproduction of objective regular connections and relations of the real world. The ambiguity of the term "knowledge":
knowledge as abilities, skills skills based on awareness;
knowledge as cognitively significant information;
knowledge as a relation of man to reality.
Ancient thought answered the question of what knowledge is by comparing it with opinion. It was believed that opinion is based on feeling, therefore it concerns single objects and is characterized by variability and relativity. Unlike opinion, in knowledge not single, but general properties are grasped, due to which knowledge has a universal character and immutability.
Medieval philosophy raised the question of the difference between knowledge and faith. Knowledge was associated with proof inherent in it. Faith does not require proof, and thus fundamentally different from knowledge.
In modern times, under the influence of the successes of the natural sciences, knowledge is understood as scientific knowledge. The concepts of knowledge, truth and science were actually identified.
Modern philosophy is gradually abandoning the identification of knowledge and science. Today, along with science, other types of spiritual activity are considered as relatively independent ways of cognition. In addition to science, there are such types of knowledge as everyday, artistic-figurative, mythological, religious, philosophical, occult, paranormal, meditative.
6. Types of knowledge:
Worldly - is based on common sense (It is empirical in nature. It is based on common sense and everyday consciousness. It is the most important indicative basis for the daily behavior of people, their relationship with each other and with nature. It boils down to stating facts and describing them)
Practical- is built on actions, mastering things, transforming the world
artistic- is built on the image (A holistic display of the world and the person in it. It is built on the image, and not on the concept)
Scientific- is built on concepts (Understanding reality in its past, present and future, reliable generalization of facts. Provides foresight of various phenomena. Reality is clothed in the form of abstract concepts and categories, general principles and laws, which often take on extremely abstract forms)
Rational - a reflection of reality in logical concepts, based on rational thinking
Irrational- reflection of reality in emotions, passions, experiences, intuition, will, abnormal and paradoxical phenomena; does not obey the laws of logic and science.
Personal (implicit)- depends on the abilities of the subject and on the characteristics of his intellectual activity.
Science concept
The science is a cognitive type of activity of each person, which is aimed at the study and removal of reasonable objective and system-organized knowledge about objects and phenomena occurring in the world around. In the process of this activity, there is an active work on the collection and analysis of specific data, their systematization and synthesis on the basis of the available new knowledge, which makes it possible to carry out scientifically based forecasting for the manifestation of this action in the future. The object of science represents the widest area of reality of the studied phenomena in environment. The subject of science is a part of a specific object under study, i.e. the subject of science is an area of objective reality, which is subsequently studied by science. Thus, the sciences differ from each other only in their subject matter.
The concept of science occupies one of the most important places in philosophy, since it is a form of knowledge of the world. The philosophical vision of the surrounding world must have a concrete idea of science, its development and accessibility.
The concept of science in philosophy consists of:
Its definitions; the objectives of its activities; Ideological basis (basis); Ideas and ideas in the complex; Representations of science itself;
