The time of the widespread dissemination of Buddhism in India. Buddhism - culture of India

India

For hundreds of millions of foreigners, India is primarily the country of the Buddha. Indeed, not any political system and not material values, but Buddhism remains for all time the most important discovery of India and its contribution to the culture of the vast majority of the peoples of Asia.

Nevertheless, most educated Indians would be horrified and indignant if anyone thought to tell them that Buddhism is their country's most outstanding contribution to world culture because in their homeland, in India, Buddhism did not hold out; its remnants are now preserved only in the north-east of the country. Such a complete decline of Buddhism in the country of its original origin belies its tremendous success outside of India.

Again, Buddhism spoke about itself in modern India only recently.

The history of Buddhism in India has three periods: the first period of primitive Buddhism is the golden age of the personal direct influence of the Master Buddha (beginning with the Benares sermon and up to the first Buddhist council in Rajagriha, that is, approximately between 523477 BC).

The second period is associated with the development of the Hinayana, when the ideals of the Arhat and individualistic-monastic Buddhism came to the fore (from the first Buddhist council to the advent of the Mahayana, that is, until the 1st century AD).

The third period is already associated with the Mahayana, when the ideals of the bodhisattva and Tantrism began to prevail, universal Buddhism spread as a world religion (I-XII centuries).

The first bhikkhu ascetics wandered barefoot, slept in the open, ate scraps and offal, and preached in local languages ​​to villagers and wild forest tribes. The Buddhist monk of that time wore a robe of red and yellow, not because the latter was considered beautiful or traditionally sacred, but because it was considered the most contemptible color in India, so that the monk would not have any sinful attachment to this color. But later it turned out that the red-yellow color began to be considered in all Buddhist countries the most beautiful and sacred of all colors. The bhikkhu robe prescribed by the Vinaya, made from discarded rags, gave way to expensive clothes made of fine cotton, first-class wool or imported silk, dyed with expensive saffron.

Buddhist monks lived in small communities near villages and cities, and over time, even during the life of the Buddha, the first monasteries were formed. The life of the monasteries of this period was strictly closed. In the monasteries of this period there were no religious-philosophical disputes and noisy school life, which characterize the life of the monasteries of the later period. The source of the material life of the monks was the donations of believers, which came to the use of the community.

In the third period of Indian Buddhism, associated with the emergence of the Mahayana and Vajrayana, new types of crowded monasteries-universities are spreading, in which almost all branches of knowledge of that time are taught: Buddhism itself, philology, epistemology, medicine, arts (artistic and technical), etc. e. In these monasteries lived not only ordinary monks, but also scientists, writers, thinkers, creators of religious and philosophical systems.

Of the monasteries of this period, such great monasteries as Nalanda, Vikramashila, Odantapuri, located in Magadha, in Bengal, and many others, are known.

These monasteries were the centers of learning from which almost all the Buddhist philosophers of that time came out. These monasteries, according to the Tibetan historian Taranata (XVI century), existed almost until the end of the last period of the history of Buddhism, after which they perished with all their colossal book wealth, mainly due to Muslim fanaticism.

The fate of Buddhism in India largely depended on the kings and rulers of states. Back in the time of Buddha, the Maharaja of the leading Indian state of that time - Magadha-Bimbisara (554493 BC) and his son Ajatashatru (493462 BC) - patronized the Buddhist Dharma, being devoted to it in one or another degree. The kings of the states of Koshala and Vaishali also patronized the Teachings of the Buddha.

After more than a hundred years, in 327325. to i. e., when kings from the Nanda dynasty ruled in Magadha and Pataliputra (founded by Ajatashatru), the troops of Alexander the Great invaded Northwest India.

At this time, one of the dignitaries named Chandragupta Maurya was expelled from the country by Nandami, who went to the north of India, to Taxila (Takshashila), to seek his fortune. Together with him was his friend, the brahmin Chanakya (Vishnugupta or Kautilya, the future author of the Artha Shastra). Two years after the death of Macedon, they raised the people to revolt and expelled the Greek garrison from India. Having taken possession of Taxila, Chandragupta turned south to Pataliputra and in 321 BC. e. took possession of it, defeating the Nandas.

From that time on, the Mauryan dynasty began to rule, whose empire, centered in Patna (Pataliputra), extended over a vast territory, occupying, in addition to South, all of Northern and Central India, and when the successor of Alexander the Great, Seleucus, again invaded India from the north, he was severely defeated Indian troops under the leadership of Chandragupta, as a result of which the northern region of Gandhara (modern Afghanistan and Pakistan) withdrew to India.

The son of Chandragupta Bindusara (300-273 BC) continued to expand the empire, during his reign some areas of South India were captured.

In the III century. BC e. his (Bindusara's) son and grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, Ashoka (324187 BC, r. 272236 BC), which means "not knowing sorrow" (in the Pali pronunciation of Asoka), entered the imperial throne in Magadha around 270 BC. e. Great Emperor of the Empire

Maurya, after the battle for the kingdom of Kalinga, became disgusted with bloodshed and accepted the Buddhist Teaching. He actively contributed to its wide distribution throughout India and beyond. The wise Ashoka managed to use the ideas of Buddhism in order to unite the country and spread his influence outside the state. The period of the reign of Ashoka includes the first religious missions directed to Ceylon, the regions of Southeast Asia.

The edicts of the mahabhaun (emperor) Ashoka Maurya are the oldest surviving Indian inscriptions that have so far been deciphered. A few scattered details from his life, preserved in a semi-legendary form, are hardly worth trying to compose a coherent narrative from them. According to the surviving legends, Ashoka, in an effort to seize the throne, allegedly killed his half-brothers and ruled with despotic cruelty during the first eight years of his reign, which lasted at least thirty-six years. The two Ashoks are often confused. The fact is that in the 5th century BC. e. there was a king in Magadha whose personal brand on coins almost coincided with that of the great Ashoka, who reigned two hundred years later. Both of these coins were in circulation at the time of the second Ashoka and after him, so that the king from the Shishunaga dynasty should be more accurately called Kala-Ashoka, that is, "ancient Ashoka." Ashoka Maurya was referred to as Priyadashi ("sweet-faced") or Devanampriya ("beloved of the gods"). Buddhist texts (in Sanskrit, Pali and Chinese) forever glorified the name of Ashoka, although they surrounded him with a halo of legends. The emperor converted to Buddhism, and his lavish offerings to the Sangha won him fame. The coins of the great emperor have been identified only recently, since they do not have a name or any other inscription, but only signs, as on all other stamped coins.

Ashoka himself speaks of the change that took place in him after the campaign in Kalinga (a district of Orissa), which took place eight years after his accession to the throne and brought him bitter disappointment. Hundreds of thousands of people died in battles, and many times more - under various circumstances related to the war. The victory was for the Mauryans the last, final act of a huge military epic. Since then, the surviving inhabitants of Kalinga enjoyed the special protection of Ashoka, like his own children. Around the same time, Ashoka begins to listen to preachers from Magadha and soon becomes a Buddhist himself. This conversion did not lead to the creation of an organized church working in conjunction with the state, nor did it do away with other Indian creeds (just as Christianity, becoming the state religion, destroyed all other cults in the Roman Empire).

On the contrary, Ashoka and his successors made lavish offerings to the Brahmins as well as to the Jains and Ajivikas. The great emperor considered it obligatory for himself to visit famous elders in his possessions, who had earned the respect of others over a long life, and also, during his constant travels around the country, talk with brahmins and various hermits and help money and gifts to all worthy people, regardless of their religion. In one of his edicts, Ashoka wrote: "All schools are worthy of reverence for one reason or another. By acting in accordance with this, a person exalts his own school and at the same time renders a service to the schools of other people."

A radical change affected the attitude of the Indian monarch towards his subjects, it was first expressed in the words: "Whatever I do, whatever I do, I just try to fulfill my duty towards all living beings." It was an absolutely new, inspiring ideal of royal power, completely alien to the old system. government controlled Magadha, in which the king was a symbol of the absolute power of the state.

Emperor Ashoka is credited with building countless stupas at the burial sites of the ashes left after the cremation of the Buddha, as well as other monuments at various sacred sites. This is largely confirmed by archaeological excavations. His famous column and rock edicts are located at the most important intersections of the main trade routes of that time or near new administrative centers. The third general council of Buddhists (such cathedrals became traditional in the reign of Ashoka) apparently had historical significance, just like Ashoka sent missionaries to neighboring countries: to Ceylon, to Central Asia and, in all likelihood, to China. The oldest surviving Pali text of the Buddhist canon is believed to have been composed immediately after the death of the Buddha, but it most likely dates back in its current form to the time of Ashoka. In this form, it has been preserved in Ceylon, Burma and Thailand.

The decrees of Ashoka reflect much more than the emperor's personal sympathy for Buddhism: they testify to a change in the fundamental direction of state policy as a whole. The first and main evidence of this is the mass construction of structures (other than stupas) that do not bring any benefit to the state. A magnificent new palace in Pataliputra, other luxurious buildings were decorated mainly with wood, however, Ashoka also used stone with characteristic polishing to a mirror shine for decoration. It is assumed that the general style of construction, polished stone and magnificent bell-shaped capitals, which have been widely used in the construction of Indian columns since the time of Ashoka, originate from the Persian architecture of the Achaemenid era. A number of sources state that Apadana, the palace of Darius I, served as a model for Ashoka, and that Ashoka even invited the craftsmen who built this palace. (The palace of Darius, located more than 3,000 km from Pataliputra, was built before 500 BC and burned down in 330 BC during one of the violent feasts of Alexander the Great).

It should be mentioned that many monuments of this time are marked by the seal of Persian influence, which gradually disappears along with the collapse of Ashoka's empire. In the first centuries BC e. elements of Greco-Bactrian and late Roman art penetrate Buddhist art. Atypical choice of material - marble, refined technique, refined features, graceful proportions and unusual context of the compositions - all testify to a strong foreign influence.

Ashoka spent a lot of money on even more important works of public improvement, which did not bring any income to the state. He built many hospitals for people and animal clinics throughout the country with free medical care at the expense of the state. On all the main trade routes, through each yojana (from eight to fourteen kilometers; originally - the minimum and maximum distance that oxen could cover in one haul on a long journey), shady groves and orchards were laid, wells were built with steps leading to the water and places recreation. This improvement (a real happiness for merchants, especially because they could now receive medical and veterinary care in many resting places for caravans) was not limited to the territory subject to Ashoka, but extended beyond its borders. All this fully corresponded to the duties of a virtuous emperor (chakravartina). The question of such work was never raised in the Brahminical Arthashastra, unless it could bring material gain, despite the fact that the Arthashastra emphasizes the need to help the elderly, the crippled and orphans.

However, it should not be assumed that Ashoka, busy with charity and various pious deeds, neglected administrative activities. “I,” says Ashoka, “will accept and consider official reports at any time, even at dinner, in the inner apartments (in the women’s quarters), in bed, in the toilet room, at the parade, in the palace park - wherever I shall not be addressed with a report on the state of the people." Every five years, the king personally traveled around his possessions for inspection purposes. Such an inspection probably took a lot of time out of these five years, and the emperor, carrying out it, was constantly on the road, except during the rainy season. In the past, if kings went somewhere, it was either on a recreational trip (for example, hunting) or on a campaign.

Now every highest official representative of the administrative power was also charged with the duty to go around the territories under his jurisdiction every five years. In addition, Ashoka created a new group of plenipotentiary inspectors to control officials and special government funds. Such an inspector was called dharma mahamatra, which means "moral minister"; later this name began to be used in the meaning of "senior manager for the distribution of alms and religious issues." For the time of Ashoka, "dharma-mahamatra" should be translated as "high commissioner for justice." The duties of the new high commissioners included, inter alia, examining the complaints of all law-abiding groups and schools, making sure that they were treated fairly, and also identifying their tenets and principles. The emperor did the same during his trips around the country.

Of course, Ashoka did not forbid any killing, only certain animals, some mammals and birds were protected for unknown reasons. Oxen, cows and bulls were not included in the list of protected animals, with the exception of the bulls, called sandaka, which (as to this day) were considered sacred. Beef was still openly traded in the market and at crossroads, like any other meat.

The commissioners of justice were given a special order to take care of the living conditions of the prisoners. Many convicts who were kept in prison, despite the end of the sentence, were released. Others were left with helpless families, which the new commissioners also had to take care of. Prisoners sentenced to death were given a three-day reprieve to put their cases in order, although there was no talk of abolishing the death penalty.

Ashoka's edicts were no doubt the expression of the Right of Justice, a principle that transcends all written and unwritten laws and is supposed to underlie both. And this exactly corresponds to the original meaning of the word Dharma (in Pali Dhamma - "Duty"), a duty that Ashoka tried to fulfill very responsibly, in the hope of becoming a worthy example to follow in the future.

Ashoka passed away in 226 BC. e., after 38 years of his reign. Shortly before his death, he became a Buddhist bhikkhu. After the death of Ashoka, his empire, having existed for some time, was divided by the successors of Ashoka into two parts - Western and Eastern. In the beginning. 2nd century The northwestern part was conquered by the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, and the Andhra dynasty was formed in the south.

The last king of the Brihadratha dynasty was killed in 187 BC. e. his military commander, who founded the new Shung dynasty (18073 BC)

This dynasty began to patronize Brahmanism. King Shunga is known to have performed a horse sacrifice in the spirit of the yajna. However, this did not affect Buddhism in any way, judging by the new Buddhist structures erected by Shunga in Sanchi.

The Greek rulers who succeeded the Mauryans in Northwest India also patronized Buddhism. One of these kings was Menander or Milinda (140-115 BC), known from the work "Questions of Milinda ("Milindapanha"), in which the king asks the monk Nagasena.

In the south of India at that time (from the 1st century BC to the 3rd century AD) the state of Andhra flourished, headed by the (early) Satavahan dynasty. According to legend, it was under them that the great Nagarjuna lived and worked. At this time, flourishing Buddhist centers in Amaravati and Nagarjuna-konde, where there were about 27 monasteries and 20 stupas. During this dynasty, the Indian colonization of the islands and overseas countries (Sumatra, Java, Indochina, etc.) reached its peak.

In the 1st century n. e. the north of India was invaded by the Sakas or Scythians. Then other Aryan tribes of the Kushans appeared, who formed their own state, which soon turned into an empire (50200 AD), stretching from Parthia and Persia in the west to Kashgar, Yarkand and Khotan in the east, in the south to Benares, and in the north to the Scythian steppes. This empire lasted almost 300 years. The capital of the Kushans was first Kabul, and then Purushapur (Peshawar). The famous monastery-university of Takshashila was located in this city. The ruler of the Kushan Empire, the great Kanishka, became the second Ashoka for India. On the territory of Kushan India, he patronized the development of Mahayana Buddhism, and on the territory of Bactria, he encouraged Zoroastrianism. For Buddhism, this was a turning point and an important moment, which was reflected in all its spheres and caused its second wind in the form of the Mahayana. At this time, a special art, called the Gandhara school, developed and reached its peak. The art of the Kushan times developed in two directions. The center of one of them was the city of Mathura, where local traditions were observed, and the center of new trends was Gandakhara, located close to Iran and Central Asia, which was ruled by the Sako-Parthian kings in the 1st century BC. BC e.

In Gandhara (North-Western India), which had close ties with Bactria (despite the Hindu Kush pass, translated as "Killing Indians"), sculptural images of the Buddha first appeared. Prior to this, anthropomorphic images of the Buddha did not exist.

Gandhar art was enriched with new ideas and images, the main of which was the image of an ideal person, the Buddha, created by the efforts of the artistic trends of this time: Hellenistic and local. Gandahara and Mathura embodied the distant ideals of the ancient Mediterranean world, refracted through the prism of historically developed local conditions. Unlike the Greek canons, this image of the Buddha became an expression not so much of physical beauty as of inner, strong-willed strength, imperturbable calmness and concentration, an all-conquering mind and wealth of the spiritual world. Here the spirit subjugates and permeates the flesh, as a result of which the forms of the human body were depicted as light and weightless, and the figure itself was depicted resting on a lotus. The posture of the Buddha expressed deepness in inner world contemplation, with half-closed eyes and a face illuminated by a mysterious smile.

In Gandhara, the art associated with the Mahayana form of Buddhism evolved until the 7th century, going through several phases in its development from eclecticism to the development of its own style. The beginning of the formation of the Gandhara school took place in a complex interaction of cultures of different peoples. Blinded by the luxury of the Roman Empire, with which active trade relations were maintained, the Kushan aristocracy sought to imitate, and, if possible, surpass Rome with the splendor and richness of their court and culture. A huge role in this was played by iconographic images of the Buddha in reliefs and round sculpture, as well as portrait statues of representatives of the Kushan nobility.

King Kanishka was actively engaged in the improvement of his capital, Purushapura (Peshawar). At this time, many monasteries, stupas, etc. were erected. The first cave monasteries were formed in Sarnath and Kushinar. In the capital, Kanishka erected a colossal tower in honor of the Buddha, about 200 meters high, which, according to contemporaries, was recognized as one of the wonders of Asia.

Other Kushan kings also invited Roman painters and sculptors, who were imitated by local craftsmen. Thus, different ideological artistic representations, tastes, manner and technique of performance of local, Central Asian, Iranian, etc. collided in Gandahar. masters. All this movement took place on the territory where some artistic traditions and monuments of the Greek colonists who settled here since the 2nd century BC could still be preserved. BC e. Thus, in the stupa from Sirkap (I century BC) one can find a surprisingly diverse combination of motifs: the forms of the Corinthian order in the columns, the Indian arch of the chaitya and the gate of the toran, the Greek triangular pediment, the Achaemenid niche, the Iranian fire altar, and, finally , figures of a double-headed eagle of Scythian origin. The influence of Central Asian art may have manifested itself in the especially bright coloring of the sculpture. Cheaper and faster production of clay and alabaster products began to develop in Gandhara.

The door through which Hellenism entered the Gandharian art was evidently the philosophical character of Buddhism. In the Mahayana, the presence of a super-formal essence, as it were, broke the rationalistic shell of the Hinayana. In addition, Mahayana sacred images have more spiritual depth than Hinayana images, which tend to be formal and stylized.

The Saka or Indo-Scythian Kushan dynasty, which, after the collapse of their empire, dissolved in the Indian environment, was replaced by the South Indian dynasty of the (late) Satavahans, who, as early as the 1st century. BC e. created the state of Andhra. After the collapse of the Mauryan Empire, the old Brahmin orthodoxy, in the spirit of the ancient Indo-Aryan culture, retained its privileges and traditions in South India. Here Brahmanism played a leading role, nevertheless, the Satavahans, the king and his deputies supported the Kushan tradition of bringing gifts to monasteries, including all cave monasteries.

In the IV-VI centuries. in the Ganges basin grows the last major Indian state of the Guptas (320540). In 320, Chandragupta I assumed the title of emperor in Magadha. Samudragupta (330380) conquered South India, and Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (375414) conquered the entire North. India except Kashmir. Under Skandagupta (455467), the Hephthalites, or White Huns, invaded the northwest of India.

The Gupta Empire occupied the northern and central regions of the country, from the Himalayan mountains to the Vindhya mountain range in the south, dominated almost all of India and was one of the largest and most influential states in the East.

It was a period of national "liberation" from Kushan domination, therefore, under the Guptas, the rajas began to patronize Brahmanism. The poet Kalidasa lived at this time.

During the reign of the Guptas, Indian colonies settled on all the major eastern islands: in Sumatra, Java, Bali, Indochina. The influx of immigrants from India to modern countries Cambodia, Thailand, Indonesia began in the first centuries BC. e. and intensified in the eighth century. The culture in these countries developed under the strong influence of India, as evidenced by the preserved monuments.

The fifth century was marked by the greatest achievements in the field of mathematics, astronomy, medicine. Literature in Sanskrit, painting, sculpture reached great perfection. This is the lifetime of the great Buddhist thinkers Asanga and Vasubandhu. In Nalanda - the largest scientific and religious center, a kind of university, in VB. several thousand students were involved, among whom were many visitors from China, Japan, and other countries.

The great philosophers Dignaga and Dharmakirti studied and taught here. In this monastery, along with the chanting of the penitential confessions of the monks, there were noisy school classes and religious and philosophical disputes between the heads of Buddhist schools and non-Buddhists (tirtiks) in the presence of their followers and patrons. In this case, the defeated side had to go to the school of the winner. This was quite natural, since Buddhism, like all Indian culture, in contrast to the Abrahamic religions, did not know the use of violence to resolve the conflict of ideas.

At the beginning of the thirties of the 7th century A.D. e. The Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang or Xuan Zhuang arrived at Nalandu Monastic University to improve his knowledge of Sanskrit and Indian Buddhism. He made a long journey through deserts and snowy mountains, past majestic stupas and rich monasteries, from Khotan to Gandhara, through the Punjab, being exposed to all sorts of dangers along the way (they even wanted to sacrifice him to the goddess Kali), until finally he arrived at home Buddhism, located in close proximity to Rajagriha. As a renowned foreign scholar, he was warmly welcomed by the great Dharma scholar Shilabhadra. Here is what the Chinese biographer of Xuan Zang reports about his reception:

"He was temporarily placed on the fourth floor of the Buddhabhadra house in the courtyard of the educational institution of King Baladitya. Seven days were spent in receptions and entertainment, after which he was assigned a permanent quarter in the guest house located north of the house of the Bodhisattva Dharmapala and increased his daily allowance. He received daily 120 bunches of tambula leaves (a leaf of betel pepper in which a piece of areca nut and a little quicklime is wrapped and chewed, it has a tonic effect), 20 areca nuts, 20 nutmegs, one ounce of camphor and one shangu (a measure of loose bodies) of rice mahashala. The grains of this variety of rice were larger than black beans, and during cooking it gave off a pleasant aroma that no other variety of rice has. Such rice was grown only in Magadha, and it could not be found anywhere. Since it was served only to kings and the most learned and virtuous monks, he was called mahashala.Xuan Zang also received three tou every month (a measure of weight) vegetable oil; as for cow's butter and milk, he could have as much of them daily as he needed. He was served by one brahmin and one servant; he was released from the ordinary duties of monks, and if he went anywhere, it was always on an elephant. Of the 10,000 monks at Nalanda University - hosts and guests - only ten, including Xuan Zang, enjoyed such privileges. Wherever he went, he was received with honor everywhere.

"Six kings, one after another, built as many monasteries, and a brick wall was made to unite all these buildings into one large monastery with a common entrance. There were many courtyards, each of which was divided into eight parts. Terraces were located everywhere, beautiful, like stars, and jade pavilions rose like mountain peaks, the top of the temple was shrouded in mist, and the vaults of the sanctuaries rose above the clouds... The blue waters of bizarrely winding streams flowed in the parks; a mango grove spread out around the monastery.The houses in all the courtyards where the monks lived had four floors.The horizontal beams were painted with all the colors of the rainbow and covered with carved ornaments with images of animals, and the vertical pillars were painted with red and green paint.Columns and portals were decorated with thin carvings, the plinths are made of polished stone, and the ceiling beams are covered with paintings ... There were thousands of monasteries in India, but not one of them could surpass Nalanda in splendor and grandeur. The monastery always housed 10,000 monks, including hosts and guests, who studied Mahayana philosophy and the doctrines of the 18 Hinayana schools, as well as secular books such as the Vedas and other classical literature. They also studied grammar, medicine and mathematics ... The king granted them income from more than a hundred villages for maintenance; in each village there were 200 families who daily delivered several hundred tans of rice, butter and milk to the monastery.

Thus, the students were fully provided with food, clothing, housing and medical care, and they did not have to beg. That is why they achieved such great success in the sciences."

The ruins at Nalanda indicate that this description was not exaggerated, although science does not yet have accurate and detailed data on the consistent development of at least one of the monasteries. In those days, there were seven-story buildings, and the Mahabodhi temple at Bodh Gaya already reached its current 48 meters height.

Xuan Zang himself wrote about the activities of the monks:

"Vinaya (Lu), discourses (Lun), sutras (ching - all these are Buddhist books. Whoever can give a complete explanation of one category of these books is freed from the power of karma-dana (or karma, the law of retribution for human deeds). If he can explain the content of the books of two categories, then he receives, in addition, one of the upper places or a room on the top floor; to the one who can explain the three categories of books, various servants are assigned to serve and obey him; to the one who whoever can explain the four categories of books is appointed as servants of "pure people" (upasaka) - adherents among the laity; whoever can explain the five categories of canonical texts receives a whole escort of servants ... If anyone from the audience shows (during the debate ) special eloquence, a subtle analytical mind, a deep understanding of the subject and a penchant for logical thinking, he is put on an elephant and escorted in a solemn procession, surrounded by a large retinue, to the gates of the monastery. unrefined expressions, or violates the laws of logic, which is accordingly reflected in his words, they paint his face with red and white paints, dump him in dust and dirt and take him to some remote place or throw him into a ditch.

Xuan Zang's descriptions of Nalanda date back to the time of his prosperity. He also mentions his terrible dream in which he saw the last tragic days of the rich and learned Nalanda. His nightmare about the destruction of Nalanda came true around 655 CE. e., when during the general unrest that began after the death of Harsha, the great monastery was plundered and burned to the ground.

The Gupta kings, beginning in the 4th century, were constantly issuing deeds of gift to the Brahmins for land, but at the same time they were restoring and rebuilding Buddhist monasteries and increasing their financial allowances.

The canonical completed form is acquired in the art of the Gupta period of the image of the Buddha. The Buddha statue from Sarnath enjoys special recognition - the personification of detachment from the earthly world, sensual pleasures and departure to the spiritual world.

The time of the Guptas is marked by another miracle of technology - a seven-meter monolithic iron column in Delhi and a two-meter Buddha statue from Sultanganj, cast in bronze and copper.

By the VVI centuries. include the emergence of written treatises on architecture and art. The few surviving buildings of monumental architecture in masonry date back to the same time: temples in Sanchi, Tigava, Yeran and Deogarh. The most famous monuments were the monasteries of Karli and Agenta, carved into the rocks located near the trade routes.

At the same time, there is a lot of evidence that there were direct links between the art of Sasanian Iran and India under the Guptas. The Sasanian influence extended as far as China and the 1ob desert and influenced the depictions of the Ajenta frescoes. Buddhist buildings founded in Ajent in the 2nd century BC. BC e., between the VVII centuries. grew into the largest monastic complex.

Returning to the history of Indian Buddhist art, one cannot fail to mention the pearl of not only Indian, but also world painting, preserved in cave monastery Agents. A wide variety of subjects are found here: the battle for Ceylon, panels depicting animals and plants, the "dying princess", dancers, solemn departures of sovereigns, etc.

The images of Agenta are natural and convincing. They conquer with their charming simplicity and immediacy. Grandiose compositions fill the entire plane of the wall with a solid carpet. The freedom of spatial organization is striking. Bypassing the laws of perspective, the artists, by means of varying degrees of color intensity and plastic modeling, created the impression of volume.

With a partial loss of color and fragmentation of many scenes, the halls of Agenta still have sparkling and iridescent rich colors. Made by many masters, the murals are at different quality levels, but, nevertheless, there is a certain unity of art schools. The depth of individual events is conveyed with extraordinary sharpness and sensitivity, the shades of feelings range from truly dramatic to frankly erotic.

In Agenta, female images of amazing beauty are presented, which are sung not only in painting, but also in numerous literary works. Especially against the backdrop of all this magnificent splendor, the figure of Buddha stands out, thoughtfully leaning over a lotus flower. The concentrated expression of his face and the soft smoothness of his movements give special solemnity and majesty to his appearance.

An interesting fact is that the various scenes are sustained in their own color scheme, obviously depending on the mood of the artist. Along with the use of local tones and strong contrasts, there are very delicate and sophisticated combinations of colors with a delicate, elegant ornamental pattern.

In the VII-VIII centuries. wall painting in almost all countries of East Asia, including Japan, was influenced by the painting of Agenta.

However, the new Brahmanism was not a return to the old state of affairs and a denial of everything that Buddhism had done. The Brahmins recorded the Buddha as an avatar (incarnation) of the god Vishnu, but consigned to oblivion his special mission. This process of Brahminization of Buddhism was a long one.

The ideological ideas of the Brahmins of that era (as opposed to cults and ritual) were often taken for granted by Buddhists, just as the Brahmins, in turn, refused to eat beef and adopted the principle of non-killing (ahimsa) as their main ideal. Gradually and higher philosophical ideas Buddhists and Brahmins began, in fact, to converge on one common position: both of them did not perceive the material world as a reality. At this time, the famous Brahmin philosopher Shankara appeared, who, in his interpretation of Brahminism, assimilated many Buddhist doctrines. Moreover, he used them as his main principles to "refute" the polemical constructions of his opponents. So Brahmanism, in the person of its supporters, armed itself with the arguments of the opposite side, that is, Buddhism.

Buddhism in India did not become the official religion of the state, like Islam or Christianity; he never used the state apparatus to suppress any doctrine hostile to him. Thus, two different systems - Buddhism and Brahmanism - got along with each other, without entering into open conflict until the 7th century AD. e. in the north and until the 9th century in the south.

During the reign of Buddhagupta (467500 AD), the Gupta empire began to disintegrate, which fell in the 6th century. Once again North India fell into fragmentation and civil strife.

In the 7th century King Kanauja, Harsha Shiladitya or Harshavardhana (605655 AD), from the Pushyabhuti clan, temporarily united the Sev. India. Although his support for Buddhism is not in doubt (he restored Buddhist stupas and temples and could forgive the killer sent to him and personally disarmed by him), in his documents, nevertheless, he called himself a "high devotee of Shiva" (para-mamaheshvara). Moreover, his ancestral deity was the sun god, who had gained great popularity in the Punjab since the renewal of Persian influence in the Kushan era and the creation of a new school of "Magic Brahman". Harsha is appropriately titled para-mabhattaraka, or "Supreme Teacher". Finally, one of the plays he wrote in Sanskrit, Nagananda, in which he himself played the role of a Buddhist hero sacrificing his life, is reverently dedicated to Gauri (the “white goddess”, that is, Parvati), the wife of Shiva (in Buddhist Tantrism, one of the dakinis in environment of Hevajra).

Being a Buddhist, Emperor Harsha waged continuous bloody wars for at least thirty years, seeking to unite most of India under his rule. However, he, like all other Buddhist kings, did not campaign or kill anyone for the glory of his religion or for the purpose of spreading it.

Having reached its peak in the 7th century, Buddhism in India begins to slowly lose ground. The reason for this was, on the one hand, the revival of Brahminism, which adopted many of the postulates of Buddhism, and, on the other hand, the destructive actions of foreign, mainly Muslim conquerors. Under the pressure of these factors, Buddhism, with its monasteries and followers, is leaving its old habitable places, from the central parts of the subcontinent to new places, the remote outskirts of India and further to its neighboring countries.

In the same seventh century Buddhism first came under real persecution when King Karendragupta Shashanka of West Bengal raided the Ganges valley, invaded its interior and destroyed many Buddha statues, not to mention cutting down the sacred Bodhi tree in Gaya. Of course, all Buddhist monuments and buildings were restored by Harsha, but the fact itself is quite eloquent: it testifies to a radical revision by some Indian rulers of their views on Buddhism.

After Harsha Sev. India again broke up into a number of small kingdoms.

In the 8th century in Northeast India, the Pala dynasty (7601142) reigned, which continued patronage of Buddhist educational centers. The Palas rebuilt Nalanda, destroyed after the death of Harsha, and built two more university-monasteries: Odantapura and Vikramashila. Over time, the Palas, having restored their state treasury, founded several new viharas, including a huge monastery near Nalanda, whose name, vihara, was subsequently given to the entire province (Bihar). They maintained lively relations with the Indianized countries of Southeast Asia.

Under this dynasty, Tantrism, or Vajrayana, became especially popular, which before them was distributed only in private and in a very narrow circle. Now tantra has been taught in Nalanda and Odantapuri. Tantric siddha teachers spread throughout India, preaching the Dharma, the practice of which did not require monasticism or renunciation of ordinary life.

Subsequent dynasties, notably the Sena, were Brahminical, but they continued to make rich offerings to the Buddhists and fortified the monasteries erected by the Palas to prevent the treasures they had accumulated from being plundered.

However, in the 19th century The Raja of Kashmir Harsha (1089-1101 CE, who should not be confused with the 7th century CE Emperor Harsha) gradually melted down all but four of the Buddhist metal statues in his kingdom. This work was carried out under the supervision of a special "minister for the eradication of the gods" - devotpatananayaka. Each statue was first subjected to public desecration; for this, lepers, beggars were involved, who urinated and defecated on her, after which they dragged her through the streets to the foundry. This was done without putting forward any religious justification. True, the king kept a hired guard from Muslims, but at the same time he deliberately insulted his bodyguards by eating pork in front of them. Nevertheless, Kharsha was an excellent writer, a connoisseur of drama, music and ballet art. He supported the Brahmins and treated with great respect to one Buddhist teacher, whose intercession actually saved four statues, two of them - the Buddha. The metal was needed to finance the costly and senseless wars the king waged against the rebellious princes of Damara.

By the XII century. Buddhism finally dissolves into Brahmanism, which, after assimilation of many Buddhist provisions, was already something new in comparison with orthodox Brahmanism. It was a slightly different religion, which eventually received the name of Hinduism. In addition to the natural abandonment of Buddhism from its position in India, its disappearance was facilitated by the Muslim invasion. Around 1200 AD e. A detachment of Muslims under the command of Muhammad Bakhtiar Khilji made a devastating raid on Magadha and West Bengal. Buddhist monasteries were stormed and plundered. At the same time, the stupas and monasteries in Sarnath, built on the site of the first sermon delivered by the Buddha, were finally destroyed. In the XIV century. Kashmir was already Islamized and the remnants of Buddhists could only be in the south of the country, where they, deprived of support, gradually merged with the local Hindu population. The last mention of Buddhism in India dates back to 1500.

At the end of the XIX century. In India, with the beginning of the activities of the Ceylon monk Anagarika Dharmapala, a revival of Buddhism began. Anagarika founded the Maha Bodhi Society in 1892 to restore Buddhist shrines in India, in particular in Gaya. And in 1956, under the leadership of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar (1891-1956), a former untouchable, more than 300,000 "Harijans" or "God's people" (untouchables) accepted Theravada Buddhism, who thus expressed their protest against the Hindu caste system. In 1971, there were already about 4 million Buddhists in India, most of whom came from the untouchables.

Introduction

Chapter 1. Religion and Culture in India

2 Hinduism as the main religion of India

Chapter 2. Buddhism and Hinduism in India

Conclusion

List of sources used

Introduction

At present, the world is increasingly paying attention to the history of ancient religions, their interrelations and peculiarities of relationships.

Therefore, it seems that the analysis of the topics of Buddhism and Hinduism in India is quite relevant and is of scientific and practical interest.

Describing the degree of scientific development, it should be noted that this topic has already been analyzed by various authors in various publications: textbooks, monographs, periodicals and on the Internet. However, when studying the literature and sources, there is an insufficient number of complete and explicit studies on the subject of "peculiarities of the relationship between Buddhism and Hinduism in India". One of the central problems of understanding ancient world- comprehension of the diversity and uniqueness of ancient cultures, distant from the present in time and space. Religions with their diversity and uniqueness have largely influenced the formation of the character of modern civilization. It is in this role, with its achievements, the basis for creating the current scientific and technical world, their cultural unity and acquires significance.

One of the most majestic and original cultures that existed on our planet is the Indo-Buddhist philosophy, which was formed mainly in India. The achievements of the ancient Indians in various fields - literature, art, science, philosophy entered the golden fund of world civilization, had a considerable impact on the further development of culture not only in India itself, but also in a number of other countries.

In this control work we will consider the religious ideas of the people of India, namely the features of the relationship between Hinduism and Buddhism.

Chapter 1. Religion and culture in India.

Indian culture occupies one of the places of honor in the history of world culture. It is marked by grandiose achievements over more than three thousand years of development. Along with longevity, it is characterized by a creative perception of the virtues of foreign cultures, without prejudice to its own fundamental values. The continuity of Indian culture is largely based on social institutions and on the widespread adoption of a generally accepted set of religious values ​​among the various classes and communities of the South Asian subcontinent. In addition, Indian culture developed on the basis of the agrarian structure of society, which determined its longevity.

The religious systems of India appear to be deep and philosophically rich. “In them, the mind (albeit merged with intuition and emotions) clearly dominated the blind faith in the omnipotence of the great God inherent in monotheism.”

There is cultural and religious diversity in contemporary India. Much depends on the region of India. The South, North, and Northeast have their own distinctive features, and virtually every state has chosen its own cultural niche. According to the 2001 census, more than 900 million Indians (80.5% of the population) practice Hinduism. Other religions with a significant following are Islam (13.4%), Christianity (2.3%), Sikhism (1.9%), Buddhism (0.8%) and Jainism (0.4%). Religions such as Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Bahai and others are also represented in India. Among the aboriginal population, which is 8.1%, animism is common. Despite this unique cultural diversity, the whole country is united as a civilization because of its common history thus preserving the national identity.

1 Buddhism as the oldest world religion

Buddhism is the oldest of the three world religions. Christianity is younger than him by five, and Islam by as much as twelve centuries. The number of followers of Buddhism in India does not exceed 5 million. man, although India is the birthplace of this religion. Buddhism was founded in northern India around 500 BC, when the enlightened Prince Guatama became the Buddha. Nor is he the last in the line of enlightened ones. Buddhists believe that every person has the opportunity to achieve enlightenment. Unlike Hinduism, Buddhism does not recognize the institution of caste; anyone who accepts its doctrine can become its follower. In the mid-1950s, almost 0.5 million Harijans, the Mahars of Maharashtra, adopted Buddhism. Of particular importance in the Mahayana is the cult of bodhisattvas - beings with the ability to become a Buddha. According to the Mahayana, bodhisattvas are celestials, but they are constantly engaged in earthly affairs, voluntarily refusing to plunge into nirvana out of compassion for people. In mahoyama, Buddhas and bodhisattvas become objects of reverence. Ritual and rites are of particular importance. In Buddhist art, the image of the Buddha appears in the guise of a supreme being. Buddhism in India was rapidly and widely spread after Emperor Ashoka became his follower. As Ashoka's empire expanded, so did the influence of Buddhism. For Hindus, Buddha is one of the incarnations of the god Vishnu.

Having emerged more than two and a half thousand years ago in India as a religious and philosophical doctrine, Buddhism created a unique and diverse canonical literature and numerous religious institutions. A broad interpretation of the philosophical provisions of Buddhism contributed to its symbiosis, assimilation and compromise with various local cultures, religions, ideologies, which allowed it to penetrate into all spheres of public life, from religious practice and art to political and economic theories.

Depending on the angle of view, Buddhism can be viewed as a religion, and as a philosophy, and as an ideology, and as a cultural complex, and as a way of life.

The philosophy of Buddhism is deep and original, and the intellectual potential of philosophy is high even against the background of the searches of the thinkers of the Upanishads. It is no coincidence that the outstanding Russian orientalist O.O. Rosenberg said that Buddhism is "the key to the Eastern soul", thus emphasizing that without it it is impossible to understand the peculiarities of the cultures and thinking of many Eastern peoples.

Mahayana and Hinayana are the main branches of Buddhism.

In the 1st century AD in Buddhism, two main branches were formed: Hinayana - the "small vehicle" (or Theravada - "true teaching") and Mahayana - the "big vehicle", there is also a third branch - varjayana - the "diamond vehicle". This division was caused, first of all, by differences in the socio-political conditions of life in certain parts of India. Hinayana, more closely associated with early Buddhism, recognizes the Buddha as a person who found the path to salvation, which is considered achievable only through withdrawal from the world - monasticism. Mahayana proceeds from the possibility of salvation not only for hermit monks, but also for the laity, and the emphasis is on active preaching, on intervention in public and state life. Mahayana, in contrast to the Hinayana, more easily adapted to the spread outside of India, giving rise to many rumors and currents, the Buddha gradually becomes the highest deity, temples are built in honor of him, cult actions are performed.

An important difference between Hinayana and Mahayana is that Hinayana completely rejects the path to salvation for non-monks who voluntarily renounce the worldly life. In the Mahayana, an important role is played by the cult of bodystaves-individuals who are already able to enter nirvana, but postpone the achievement of the final goal in order to help others, not necessarily monks, in achieving it, thereby replacing the requirement to leave the world with a call to influence it. .

Early Buddhism is notable for its simplicity of ritual. Its main element is: the cult of Buddha, preaching, veneration of holy places associated with the birth, enlightenment and death of Gautama, worship of stupas - places of worship where the relics of Buddhism are kept. Mahayana added veneration to the bodystaves to the cult of the Buddha, thus the rites became more complicated: prayers and all sorts of spells were introduced, sacrifices began to be practiced, and a magnificent ritual arose.

In the VI-VII centuries. n. e. the decline of Buddhism in India began, due to the decline of the slave system and the growth of feudal fragmentation, by the XII-XIII centuries. it is losing its former positions in the country of its origin, having moved to other parts of Asia, where it has been transformed taking into account local conditions.

So, in accordance with the philosophy of Buddhism, there is nothing in the world but agitated dharmas, which makes everything that exists unreal, illusory, remaining in eternal impermanence, but the truly existing, the absolute exists in the very empirical being, manifests itself in its carriers - dharmas. Such a worldview unites Buddhism of all directions, no matter how they differ from each other.

1.2 Hinduism as the main religion of India

The area of ​​origin and spread of Hinduism is the Indian subcontinent, the majority of those who profess this religion live in the Republic of India. The historical name of Hinduism is "sanatana-dharma", which in Sanskrit means "eternal path" or "eternal law". The modern term "Hinduism" arose from the word "Hindu", which is the Persian version of the Sanskrit name for the river Sindhu (Indus). Hinduism ranks first in Asia in terms of the number of followers. Despite the fact that this religion originated in India, India, in fact, is also limited by the scope of its distribution. Outside of India, Hindus make up the majority in Nepal and the Indonesian island of Bali.

Hinduism is characterized by the idea of ​​the universality and universality of the supreme deity. The basis of Hinduism is the doctrine of the reincarnation of souls (samsara), which occurs in accordance with the law of retribution (karma) for virtuous or bad behavior, determined by the worship of Hindu deities. Hinduism also preaches immortality human soul and three basic postulates, following which one can achieve complete merging with the "holy spirit" that exists everywhere - wisdom, faith and action.

The basic concepts of Hinduism were formed in the 1st millennium BC on the basis of a kind of fusion of Vedism and the ancient cults of the pre-Aryan peoples of India. Some Vedic gods had much in common with the "alien", in particular with the Greek gods. Many elements of primitive beliefs have been preserved in Hinduism (the worship of "sacred" animals, natural phenomena, the cult of ancestors, etc.). Hinduism strictly regulates all the rights and obligations of a person from birth to death. It is important to emphasize that Hinduism itself does not have one founder, does not represent a single religion with a coherent creed, but includes many religious paths that have the same Vedic roots, but sometimes contradict each other. Hinduism is internally heterogeneous and represents several currents: Vishnuism - the supreme deity Vishnu and Shaivism - the supreme deity Shiva. Both directions are, in fact, polytheistic cults, since Shiva and Vishnu have gods-children, goddesses-husbands, the veneration of which is also mandatory in the context of the religious practice of both directions. In every direction, Shiva and Vishnu claim to be the head of the polytheistic pantheons of India. In turn, Shaivism and Vishnuism also fall into several directions. In parallel with Shaivism and Vishnuism, popular Hinduism flourishes, expressed in the worship of hundreds of local deities, which, in most cases, are in marital or family ties with each other. At the same time, with popular Hinduism in India, there is a powerful organization of the priestly class of Brahmins, who keep the main texts of the religion and are engaged in ritual practice.

All areas of Hinduism are united by several provisions:

Belief in the gods and their worship in the form of idols (murti), that is, statues and sculptural images.

Belief in the transmigration of souls, that is, the ability of the soul to inhabit the bodies of all kinds of living beings - from insects to humans (samsara).

Belief that the order of rebirth is determined by the deeds committed during life and their consequences (karma).

Shaivism and Vishnuism insist on the possibility of liberation (moksha) from the law of reincarnation through the worship of deities. To do this, supporters of these areas are developing various methods of liberation (yoga). The methods of liberation from samsara offered by Shaivism and Vishnuism are multivariate. However, they all somehow include two points:

Worship of the leading god of the polytheistic pantheon and its attendant deities.

A system of mental and physical exercises to achieve indifference to earthly life.

Most of the Indians profess Hinduism, so Hinduism is often called the national religion, not the world religion. At the same time, scientists raise the question of recognizing Hinduism as one of the world religions. Although the majority of Hindus live in India, Hindu communities are scattered across almost every continent, giving Hinduism a global status. By the end of the 20th century, Hinduism crossed national borders and became popular in Europe, North and South America, Australia and Russia, claiming recognition as one of the world's religions. In favor of the recognition of Hinduism as a world religion is also evidenced by the fact that in terms of the number of followers it ranks third after Christianity and Islam, significantly ahead of Buddhism in terms of the number of believers - one of the religions unconditionally recognized among the world.

Indian religious Buddhism Hinduism

Chapter 2. Buddhism and Hinduism in India, features of relations

The basis of Hinduism is very similar to Buddhism. So, the basis of life is a chain of reincarnations, the law of karma also operates, and the goal of a person is to achieve moksha (corresponding to nirvana among Buddhists). The last goal is a kind of sojourn in God. The distinctive side of Hinduism is the famous doctrine of castes: the highest caste is the Brahmins (priests), then the caste of the Kshatriyas (warriors, nobility), then the Vaishyas (farmers and cattle breeders) and, finally, the last caste - Shudras (servants). A person by birthright belonged to one or another caste, and was not able to change his social status no matter what abilities or intelligence he possessed. Inter-caste marriages were also strictly prohibited. The sages played an important role in the development of Hinduism - this direction is called the Upanishad (sitting at the teacher's feet). The ways to achieve moksha are different for numerous branches of Hinduism, but their general view is almost the same as the Buddhist one. Unlike Hinduism, Buddhism does not recognize the institution of caste; anyone who accepts its doctrine can become its follower.

The evolution of the Mahayana and the rapprochement of the folk religion of Buddhism with Hinduism led to the fact that, starting from the middle of the 1st millennium, there was a clear trend in Buddhism towards an increase in the importance of rituals and ceremonies. As a result, along with Hinayana and Mahayana, a third direction arose - Vazhdrayana ("chariot of magic spells", "diamond chariot"). It appeared as a result of the penetration into Buddhism of magical techniques from Hinduism and folk beliefs. Instead of striving for salvation on the path of observing the moral principles of the Buddha or in seeking help from bodhisattvas, here they are mainly engaged in magical activities - they perform rites (tantras) and utter spells (mantras) in order to gain power over the gods and achieve salvation. In Vazhdrayana, the existence of female body-sattvas and Buddhas, as well as orgiastic forms of worship, was allowed. Thus, the Buddhist teaching was significantly transformed and approached Hindu Tantrism and Shaktism (the cult of female power).

Buddhism developed in India in the general context of Indian philosophy and religion, which also included Hinduism and Jainism. Although Buddhism shares some common features with these religions, there are fundamental differences nonetheless.

First of all, unlike Hinduism, Buddhism does not contain the idea of ​​caste, but, as noted above, it contains the idea of ​​the equality of all people in terms of having the same opportunities for them. Like Hinduism, Buddhism talks about karma, but the idea of ​​karma is completely different here. It is not an idea of ​​fate or fate, like the Islamic idea of ​​qizmat, or God's will. It does not exist in classical Hinduism or Buddhism, although in modern popular Hinduism it sometimes acquires such a meaning due to the influence of Islam. In classical Hinduism, the idea of ​​karma is closer to the idea of ​​duty. People are born in different life and social conditions due to belonging to different castes (to the caste of warriors, rulers, servants) or are born as women. Their karma, or duty, is in specific life situations follow the classic patterns of behavior described in the Mahabharata and Ramayana, the great epics of Hindu India. "If one acts, for example, as a perfect wife or a perfect servant, then in future lives his position is likely to be better."

The Buddhist idea of ​​karma is quite different from the Hindu one. In Buddhism, karma means "impulses" that make us do or think something. These impulses arise as a result of previous habitual actions or behavioral patterns. But since it is not necessary to follow every impulse, our behavior is not strictly deterministic. This is the Buddhist concept of karma.

Both Hinduism and Buddhism contain the idea of ​​rebirth, but it is understood differently. In Hinduism we speak of the atman or self, permanent, unchanging, separate from body and mind, always the same and passing from life to life; all these selves or atmans are one with the universe or Brahma. Therefore, the variety that we see around us is an illusion, because in reality we are all one. Buddhism interprets this problem differently: there is no unchanging "I", or atman, passing from life to life: "I" exists, but not as a figment of fantasy, not as something continuous and constant, passing from one life to another. “In Buddhism, the self can be likened to an image on a film strip, where there is a continuity of frames, and not a continuity of objects moving from frame to frame.” Here the analogy of "I" with a statue moving, as if on a conveyor belt, from one life to another is unacceptable. Another significant difference is that Hinduism and Buddhism emphasize different types activities leading to liberation from problems and difficulties. In Hinduism, external physical aspects and techniques are usually emphasized, for example, various asanas in hatha yoga, in classical Hinduism, cleansing by bathing in the Ganges, as well as diet.

In Buddhism, great importance is attached not to external, but to internal techniques that affect the mind and heart. This can be seen in such expressions as "development of a good heart", "development of wisdom to see reality." This difference also manifests itself in the approach to pronouncing mantras - special Sanskrit syllables and phrases. In the Hindu approach, the emphasis is on sound reproduction. From the time of the Vedas, it was believed that sound is eternal and has its own huge force. In contrast, the Buddhist approach to mantra-based meditation emphasizes developing the ability to concentrate through mantras rather than sound per se.

Having considered the features of the relationship between Buddhism and Hinduism, we can conclude that these religions did not just coexist together, they adopted each other's features, which is the reason for their similarity to this moment. But, despite the fact that they have a number of common features, Buddhism as the main religion in India has given way to Hinduism. This is determined by cultural differences that affect the political and social life of the country, and are necessary at this historical stage of development.

Conclusion

Ancient Indian culture had a great impact on the culture of other countries. For example, Buddhism, which gave way to Hinduism in terms of the number of believers in India, gained popularity in other countries. We analyzed the characteristics and features inherent in both Buddhism and Hinduism. From the above, it follows that the decline of Buddhism was due to the decline of the slave system and the growth of feudal fragmentation, so by the XII-XIII centuries. it loses its former positions in the country of its origin. Hinduism, in turn, satisfies the socio-political structure of India; over time, it has changed, absorbing both the features of Buddhism and other religions. In modern India, cultural heritage is treated with respect, this is evidenced by the cultural and religious monuments that have survived to this day. This country is characterized by the vitality of ancient traditions and it is not surprising that many achievements of the ancient Indian civilization were included in the general cultural fund of the Indians. Buddhism and Hinduism have become an integral component of world civilization, and India itself remains one of the most interesting countries in terms of culture in the world.

List of sources used

1. Andreev D.L. Rose of the world. - M., 1993. 452 p.

Antonova K.A., Bongard-Levin G.M., Kotovsky G.G. History of India. - M., 1979. 343s.

Arthashastra / Per. A.I. Vostrikova et al., M.-L., 1959. 543p.

Atharvaveda. Favorites / Per. T.Ya. Elizarenkova. - M., 1996. 345s.

Botard-Levin G.M. ancient Indian civilization. Philosophy, science, religion. M „ 1980. 233s.

Vasiliev L.S. History of the Religions of the East. M., 1988. 295s.

Tokarev S.A. Early forms of religion. - M., 1971. 354s.

Tokarev S.A. Religions in the history of peoples. - M., 1986. 239s.

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India is a country with a peculiar, unusually interesting culture and its own original beliefs. It is unlikely that in any other state - with the exception, perhaps, of ancient Egypt and Greece - there is such a huge number of myths, scriptures and traditions. Some researchers consider this peninsula to be the cradle of mankind. Others suggest that this country is one of the main heirs of the culture of the Aryan peoples who came here from the dead Arctida. The oldest religion of ancient India - Vedism - later transformed into Hinduism, which still exists today.

The ancient tribes inhabiting the Hindustan peninsula switched from gathering and hunting to settled agriculture around 6-7 thousand BC. e. By the end of the 3000s, a highly developed culture of urban-type settlements was already emerging in these territories. It is called "Harappan" by modern scientists. This civilization lasted almost a millennium. In the ancient Indian Harappan cities, handicrafts were well developed and there was a rich class of merchants. What happened to this culture is unknown. Some researchers suggest that a large-scale catastrophe occurred, others believe that the rich cities of this period, for some reason, simply went bankrupt and were abandoned.

Later in India for a long time Muslim dynasties ruled. In 1526, Khan Babur conquered these territories, after which India became part of the vast Mughal empire. This state was abolished only in 1858 by the English colonialists.

History of religion

Over the centuries in this country successively replaced each other:

• Vedic religion of ancient India.
• Hinduism. Today, this religion is dominant in India. More than 80% of the country's population is its adherents.
• Buddhism. Today it is confessed by a part of the population.

Early beliefs

Vedism - ancient religion Ancient India. Some scientists suggest that it appeared in this country some time after the disappearance of a huge prosperous ancient state - Arctida. Of course, this is far from the official version, but it is actually very interesting and explains a lot. According to this hypothesis, once upon a time, for unknown reasons, the earth's axis shifted. As a result, the climate has changed dramatically. It became very cold in Arctida, located either at the North Pole, or in modern subpolar continental regions. Therefore, the Aryans who inhabited it were forced to migrate towards the equator. Some of them went to the Middle and South Urals, having built observatory cities here, and then to the Middle East. The other part advanced through Scandinavia and the Valdai Upland. In the formation of Indian culture and religion, the third branch took part, which reached Southeast Asia and subsequently mixed with the indigenous inhabitants of these places - the Dravidians.

Basic concept

In fact, Vedism - the oldest religion of ancient India - is the initial stage of Hinduism. It was not distributed throughout the country, but only in part of it - in Uttar and East Punjab. According to the official version, it was here that Vedism originated. For the adherents of this religion, the deification of all nature as a whole, as well as its parts and some social phenomena, was characteristic. There was no clear hierarchy of gods in Vedism. The world was divided into three main parts - the earth, the sky and the intermediate sphere - antarizhna (compare with the Slavic Yavu, Naviu and Pravya). Each of these worlds corresponded to certain gods. The main creator, Purusha, was also revered.

Veda

We briefly talked about what the oldest religion of Ancient India is. Next, we will deal with what the Vedas are - its fundamental scripture.

At the moment, this book is one of the oldest sacred works. It is believed that for thousands of years the Vedas were transmitted only orally - from teacher to student. About five thousand years ago, the sage Vyasadeva wrote down part of them. This book, which today is actually considered the Vedas, is divided into four parts (turiya) - "Rigveda", "Samaveda", "Yajurveda" and "Atharvaveda".

This work contains mantras and hymns written in verse and serving as a guide for Indian clergy (rules for wedding, funeral and other rites). It also has spells designed to heal people and perform various kinds of magical rituals. The mythology and religion of ancient India are closely related. For example, in addition to the Vedas, there are Puranas. They describe the history of the creation of the universe, as well as the genealogy of Indian kings and heroes.

Rise of Hindu beliefs

Over time, the most ancient religion of ancient India - Vedism - is transformed into modern Hinduism. This was connected, apparently, mainly with a gradual increase in influence on public life brahmin castes. In the updated religion, a clear hierarchy of gods is established. The Creator comes to the fore. There is a trinity - Brahma-Vishnu-Shiva. Brahma is given the role of the creator of social laws, and in particular the initiator of the division of society into varnas. Vishnu is revered as the main guardian, and Shiva as the destroyer god. Gradually, two directions appear in Hinduism. Vishnuism speaks of eight descents of Vishnu to earth. One of the avatars is considered to be Krishna, the other is Buddha. Representatives of the second direction - the cult of Shiva - especially revere the god of destruction, considering him both the patron of fertility and livestock.

Hinduism began to play the role of the dominant religion in India already from the Middle Ages. It remains so to this day. Representatives of this religion believe that it is impossible to become a Hindu. They can only be born. That is, varna (the social role of a person) is something that is given and predetermined by the gods, and therefore cannot be changed.

The varnashrama-dharna social system

Thus, another ancient religion of ancient India, Hinduism, became the heir to many traditions and rituals of previous beliefs. In particular, the division of Indian society into varnas arose in the days of Vedism. Except four social groups(Brahmins, Kshtarias, Vaishyas and Shudras), according to this religion, there are four ways of human spiritual life. The stage of learning is called Brahmacharya, social and family life is called Grihastha, the subsequent departure from the worldly is Vanaprastha and the final stage of life with final enlightenment is Sannyasa.

Whoever created the varnashrama-dharna, such an orderly way of life is still preserved in the world. In any country there are priests (Brahmins), administrators and military men (Kshtarias), businessmen (Vaishyas) and workers (Shudras). Such a division makes it possible to streamline social life and create the most convenient living conditions for people with the opportunity to develop and improve themselves.

Unfortunately, in India itself, varnashrama-dharna has greatly degraded by our time. The rigid division into castes (moreover, depending on birth), which exists here today, contradicts the basic concept of this teaching about the need for a person's spiritual growth.

The Religion of Ancient India Briefly: The Rise of Buddhism

This is another very common belief on the peninsula. Buddhism is one of the most unusual religions in the world. The fact is that, unlike Christianity, the founder of this cult is a completely historical person. The creator of this currently quite widespread teaching (and not only in India) Sidgartha Shanyamuni was born in 563 in the city of Lumbene in a kshtaria family. He was called Buddha after he attained enlightenment at the age of 40.

The religion and philosophy of ancient India have always considered the deity not as a punishing or pardoning force, but as a role model, a kind of "beacon" of self-development. Buddhism, on the other hand, completely abandoned the idea of ​​creating the world by any Creator. Adherents of this religion believe that a person can only rely on himself personally, while suffering is not sent to him from above, but is the result of his own mistakes and inability to discard worldly desires. However, like the earlier Indian religions discussed above, Buddhism contains the idea of ​​salvation, that is, the achievement of nirvana.

Interaction with Western culture

For Europeans, the culture and religion of ancient India for a long time remained a mystery behind seven seals. The beginning of the interaction of these two completely different worlds was established only at the end of the century before last. Celebrities such as E. Blavatsky, Nicholas and Helena Roerich and others made their invaluable contribution to this process.

Today, one of Vanga's predictions regarding India is widely known. The famous soothsayer believed that soon the most ancient teaching. And it will come from India. New books will be written about it, and it will spread throughout the Earth.

Who knows, perhaps the ancient religion of India will indeed become the basis of future new beliefs. The “Fiery Bible”, as Vanga predicts, “will cover the Earth with white color”, thanks to which people will be saved. Perhaps, we are even talking about the well-known work written by the Roerichs - Agni Yoga. "Agni" means "Fire" in translation.

Culture of Ancient India

The religion and culture of ancient India are closely interrelated phenomena. The otherworldly mystical world of the gods is almost always present in the works of Indian artists, sculptors and even architects. Even in our time, masters strive to bring deep content into each of their works, a kind of vision of inner truth, not to mention the ancient craftsmen.

Unfortunately, very few ancient Indian paintings and frescoes have come down to us. But in this country there is simply a huge number of ancient sculptures of historical value, and architectural monuments. What are, for example, the huge Ellora caves with the magnificent Kailash temple in the center. Here you can also see the majestic statues of the divine Trimurti Brahma-Vishnu-Shiva.

So, we have found out that the oldest religion of Ancient India is Vedism. Hinduism and Buddhism, which arose later, are its development and continuation. Religious beliefs In India, they simply had a tremendous impact not only on culture, but also on social life in general. In our time, this country still remains unusually interesting, original, original and unlike any other state in the world.

For several centuries, Buddhism has been one of the influential religions of India, with followers in almost every part of the subcontinent. However, having reached its peak in the fifth century AD, it began to lose its importance and was practically overshadowed by other religions by the time of the Muslim conquest. Today, Buddhists are a tiny part of the population of India (the neo-Buddhists who adopted this religion in the middle of the 20th century are a special case), but at the same time a number of excellent monuments such as the Ajanta and Ellora caves in Maharashtra, the Sanchi stupas in Madhya Pradesh, are a wonderful reminder of once flourishing culture. Now, besides numerous Tibetan refugee camps, only Ladakh and Sikkim preserve Buddhist culture.

The founder of Buddhism, Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha - "the awakened one", was born into a wealthy kshatriya family in Lumbini, around 566 BC. Brought up in luxury as a prince, he married at an early age, but later withdrew from married life. Dissatisfied with the explanations of worldly suffering offered by Hindu gurus, and convinced that asceticism does not lead to spiritual realization, Siddhartha searched for answers to his questions on his own. Enlightenment is said to have occurred under a pipal tree in Bodhgaya, after a night of meditation and contemplation as he resisted the worldly temptations created before him by the demon Mara. He soon gave his first sermon in Sarnath, which is now a major pilgrimage center.

The rest of his life he taught, explaining the Dharma, the true nature of the world, human life and spiritual awakening. Before his death (in 486 BC) in Kushinagar, he founded a sangha, a community of monks and nuns, who continued to study the path he proposed.

Although Buddhism is often seen as a religion, many students and practitioners understand it as a science of the mind. Buddhism is not a concept of God like the monotheistic religions; the deities of Tibetan Buddhism and the statues of Buddha in temples are not so much for worship, but rather are symbols that help deepen spiritual understanding. The Buddha's worldview included the Hindu concepts of samsara and karma, but the ultimate goal of the religion was different: it is nirvana. Indefinable in worldly terms because it is by nature free from conditioning, nirvana represents mental clarity, pure understanding, and unimaginable happiness.

Its goal is the cessation of rebirth, and not the communion of the "soul" with God; as a result, all individuals lose their traits and cease to exist independently. The most important concept highlighted by the Buddha is that all things are inevitably impermanent. There are no independent properties of anything due to the coherence of all things, and the human ego is the biggest obstacle on the road to Enlightenment.

PRACTICE
Ignoring the division of society into castes and the dominance of priests in ritual, the Buddha created a teaching open to all. His followers took refuge in these three jewels: Buddha, Dharma and Sangha. The teaching became known as Theravada, or "the doctrine of the elders." By the first century B.C. the Pali konon, Tripitaka, or "Three Baskets" was formed.

At the heart of Buddhist practice are the concepts of dana - selfless giving and shila - self-restraint, fulfillment of vows, not harming oneself and others, as the most important guiding principles for all Buddhists, and as a necessary set of rules for the emerging community.

When practiced with the right intentions, sila and dana lead to the acquisition of good karma, making the individual more open to the perception of the Four Noble Truths. The first of these truths is that everything in the world brings suffering (duhkha), not because every action is necessarily unhappy, but because everything in this world is impermanent and unreliable. The second truth states that suffering has a cause, the third truth speaks of the possibility of ending suffering, and the fourth truth explains the way to this.

Known as the eightfold path (right understanding, right aspiration, right thought, right speech, right action, correct image life, right effort, right concentration) is a way of reducing the ego and increasing understanding until all four truths are fully realized and enlightenment is achieved. But even this should not be "hooked": as the Buddha advised, those who practice the dharma should use their understanding to help others.

The Sanskrit word bhavana, sometimes used in the West to mean "meditation," literally translates as "creation." Often Buddhist meditation is divided into two categories: samatha, or calm, which calms and directs the mind, and vipassana, or understanding, during which noble truths are pondered, leading ultimately to the realization of reality. Both methods are taught in Buddhist centers throughout India.

Buddhist iconography represents the Buddha in the form of symbols such as footprints, a bodhi tree, an umbrella, or a vase. They can be depicted in the decoration of stupas (monumental domed monuments containing relics of the Buddha) built throughout India since the time of Emperor Ashoka, and in ancient Buddhist caves that served for meditation retreats and viharas - monasteries. The most beautiful are in Ellora and Ajanta; like the wonderful stupas at Sanchi, they already represent the Buddha in human form, standing and preaching, or sitting in meditation, with characteristic features, and indicating learning with hand gestures - mudra.

The development of Buddhist visual arts coincided with the growth of its religious significance, and the growth of the image of the bodhisattva - a being who achieved enlightenment, but remained in the world to become teachers full of selfless compassion and altruism.

The importance of the bodhisattva ideal grew in the Mahayana or "Great Vehicle" school. This school, somewhat disparagingly, renamed the old Theravada school "Hinayana" ("Little Vehicle"). Mahayanists preached the idea of ​​emptiness - shunyata as the fundamental nature of all things, believing that nothing has an independent existence. The wisdom (prajna) necessary to understand emptiness, the right means required to apply wisdom in daily life and learning, and the interpretation of emptiness in a positive sense, have become the most important qualities of Mahayana Buddhism. Soon the bodhisattva ideal entered the sacred texts and art; in Tibetan sculpture, wisdom is represented in the form of female images.

Theravada has spread to Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia - Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Cambodia. Mahayana spread from India to Nepal and Tibet, to China, Korea and Japan.

Further development filled Buddhism with mystical practices, secret teachings, which were especially fully reflected in the direction of the Mahayana, known as the Vajrayana ("Diamond Chariot"), based on texts - tantras. The Vajrayana encourages meditation that uses mandalas - symbolic diagrams representing the cosmos and inner spiritual space and movement, various sacred images, and sometimes sexual practices as a means of increasing energy, transforming it and achieving spiritual enlightenment.

TIBETAN BUDDHISM
Buddhism arrived in Tibet in the seventh century, and merged with local religion bon. Practiced also in Ladakh, some foothill regions of the Himalayas, Sikkim, and Bhutan, Tibetan Buddhism recognizes the historical Buddha known as Shakyamuni, along with previous Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and guardian spirits. These gods represent various emotions or transient states. For example, to develop the quality of compassion, one can meditate and pray to Chinrezing, the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, or Tara, the female equivalent. Many pujas include elaborate rituals, music and dance.

Great importance have teachers, lamas (like gurus), and reincarnated teachers - tulkus. The current Dalai Lama, head of the Gelugpa school of Tibetan Buddhism, is the fourteenth in the succession of incarnating bodhisattvas Avalokiteshvara; he heads the Tibetan government-in-exile, which is headquartered in Dharmasala in Himachal Pradesh. With over 100,000 Tibetan refugees now living in India, including the Dalai Lama and the Tibetan government in exile, Tibetan Buddhism is now probably the most accessible and flourishing form of Buddhism in India, providing numerous opportunities for its study.

For Buddhist monks and nuns, and some lay members of the emerging Buddhist community, meditation is an integral part of religious life. Most Buddhists concentrate on the principles of dana and shila, and at auspicious times, to celebrate the birthday of the Buddha, His Enlightenment and death - leaving for mahaparinirvana, they make pilgrimages to Bodhgaya, Sarnath, Lumbini and Kushinagar.

After ritual prostrations in front of Buddha statues, worshipers gather in quiet meditation, or participate in chants. Uposatha, full lunar days, are celebrated with uninterrupted chanting throughout the night when the temples are lit by flickering oil lamps, often set afloat in lotus pools, amidst flowers representing the beauty and purity that exists in every human being behind the thick layer of confusing "dirt" of everyday life.

Buddhists of Tibetan communities hang flags with written prayers, spin drums and set stones on rivers with carved mantras, thus sending the word of Buddha with wind and water to all directions of the Earth. Prayers and singing are often accompanied by the music of horns, drums and cymbals.

FREEDOM AND CONTRADICTION
On January 5, 2000, 14-year-old Orgyen Trinley Dorji, the 17th Gyalwa Karmapa finally reached Dharmasala after an exhausting trip through the Himalayas in a well-planned escape from the supervision of his Chinese tutors. The joy of being in the Tibetan community was sincere, but not entirely overwhelming. While the Dalai Lama gave his blessing to Origen Trinley, chosen as the reincarnation of the influential regent Tai by Situpa Rimpoche, the monks, led by the senior abbot of the Rumtek monastery in Sikkim, patronized their own candidate, Tasya Dorji.

As for the third opponent, Dav Zangpoa Sherpa Xas Dorji, he twice tried to take Rumtek by force, trying to prove that he was the real Karmapa. Many contradictions are explained by the great wealth of the monastery and the extensive influence of the Karmapa, who is the third in the Tibetan hierarchy after the Panchen Lama and the Dalai Lama.

His opponents argue that Origen Trinley Dorji, born in Tibet and formally enthroned in Tsurphu in 1992, is in fact a Chinese and that his rescue and Tai Situpa's conspiracy was not without Chinese blessing. Of course, the contradiction turned out to be very significant and difficult to resolve for the Tibetan and Himalayan Buddhist communities, but this is a factor that could play into the hands of the Chinese. But, nevertheless, by all indications, his election was popular, and was blessed by the Tibetan government in exile.

Origen Trinley is still not allowed to leave the monastery near Dharmasala, which is heavily guarded by Tibetan and Indian security forces. The Indian government has not yet allowed him to enter Sikkim, in part because this issue is still a bone of contention between India and China. Origen Trinley Dorji now has refugee status, which many see as the first step towards his official entry into Sikkim and his enthronement at Rumtek. His family, meanwhile, remains under protection in Tibet.

As a religious movement, Buddhism originated in the northeastern part of India. Its founder is Prince Siddhartha Gautama Shakyamuni, who later became known as the Buddha, i.e. "awakened".

From birth, he was predicted to become a great ruler or a mystic and ascetic. Siddhartha's father believed that if the prince was protected from the negative aspects of life, he would make a choice in favor of the mundane, and not the spiritual.

Until the age of 29, Siddhartha lived a luxurious life in his father's palace. The prince knew no worries, he was surrounded by servants and beautiful girls. But one day the young man secretly left the palace and during his walk for the first time could observe grief, illness and poverty. Everything he saw shocked the prince.

The Buddha began to reflect on the vanity of existence, he came to the conclusion that earthly joys are too insignificant and fleeting. Siddhartha left the palace forever and began to live as a hermit. For many years he led an ascetic life until he attained enlightenment.

For reference: the history of the emergence of Buddhism does not reveal the exact moment of the birth of this religion. According to the Theravada tradition (one of the oldest Buddhist schools), the Buddha lived from 624 to 544 BC. BC. The historical homeland of the religious movement was the Ganges Valley, located in India.

The Four Noble Truths of Buddhism

These Truths are the essence of Buddhism. They should be known to anyone who is interested in this Eastern religion:

• Dukkha - suffering, dissatisfaction
• Causes of dukkha
• End of suffering
• The path leading to the cessation of dukkha

What do the four noble Truths of Buddhism teach us? First of all, they testify that life, birth and death are suffering. Dissatisfaction is inherent in every person, be he a beggar or a king. Everywhere and everywhere people are faced with death, disease and other misfortunes.

According to the traditions of Buddhism, the causes of suffering are human desires. Until the thirst for pleasure leaves a person, he will be forced to reincarnate on earth again and again (pass the circle of Samsara). The inability to get what you want, as well as the loss of what you want or satiety cause dissatisfaction.

The Third Noble Truth teaches that it is possible to end all suffering once and for all and reach the state of nirvana. About what nirvana is, the Buddha spoke very reluctantly. This is an indescribable state of the fullness of being, liberation from bonds, attachments and desires.

The Fourth Truth indicates to adepts the way in which Nirvana can be attained. It's Noble Eightfold Path, which includes a set of moral and ethical instructions. One of the attributes of the "Path" is "correct concentration", i.e. meditation practice.

Death and rebirth

In the course of his life, each person commits good and bad deeds. This is it, positive or negative. Until karma is exhausted, a person will not be able to reach nirvana and gain freedom.

Adherents of Buddhism believe that the law of karma largely determines the conditions of a person's life. It depends on past deeds whether an individual will be born rich or poor, healthy or sick, whether his parents will love him.

It is noteworthy that not only bad, but also good karma binds a person to the ground. Therefore, in order to be freed, the individual must not only get rid of the accumulated "debts", but also receive a reward for good deeds.