4 noble truths and the eightfold path. Four Noble Truths of Buddhism

4.2. "Four Noble Truths" of Buddhism

The Buddha himself formulated his religious program in the form of four main provisions (“four noble truths”).

1. Life is suffering.

2. There is a reason for suffering.

3. Suffering can be ended.

4. There is a path leading to the end of suffering.

The cause of suffering is a terrible thirst, accompanied by sensual pleasures and seeking satisfaction here and there; it is the desire for sense gratification, for well-being. The changeability and inconstancy of a person who is never satisfied with the fulfillment of his desires, starting to desire more and more, is the true cause of suffering. According to the Buddha, truth is eternal and unchanging, and any change (including rebirth human soul) is an evil that is the source of human suffering. Desires cause suffering, since a person desires what is impermanent, changeable, and therefore subject to death, because it is the death of the object of desire that causes the greatest suffering to a person.

Since all pleasures are transient, and false desire arises from ignorance, then the end of suffering comes when knowledge is achieved, and ignorance and false desire are different sides of the same phenomenon. Ignorance is a theoretical side, it is embodied in practice in the form of the emergence of false desires that cannot be fully satisfied, and, accordingly, cannot give a person true pleasure. However, the Buddha does not seek to substantiate the need to obtain true knowledge, as opposed to those illusions that people usually entertain themselves with. Ignorance is a necessary condition for ordinary life: there is nothing in the world worth truly striving for, so any desire is, by and large, false. In the world of samsara, in the world of constant rebirth and variability, there is nothing permanent: neither things, nor the "I" of a person, because bodily sensations, perception and awareness of the world external to a single person - all this is only an appearance, an illusion. What we think of as "I" is just a succession of empty appearances that appear to us as separate things. Singling out in the general stream of the universe the individual stages of the existence of this stream, considering the world as a collection of objects, not processes, people create a global and all-encompassing illusion, which they call the world.

Buddhism sees the elimination of the cause of suffering in the eradication of human desires and, accordingly, in the cessation of rebirth and falling into a state of nirvana. For a person, nirvana is a liberation from karma, when all sadness stops, and the personality, in the usual sense of the word for us, disintegrates in order to make room for the awareness of its inseparable involvement in the world. The very word "nirvana" in Sanskrit means "fading" and "cooling down": damping resembles complete destruction, and cooling symbolizes incomplete destruction, accompanied not by physical death, but only by the dying of passions and desires. According to the expression attributed to the Buddha himself, “the liberated mind is like a fading flame,” that is, Shakyamuni compares nirvana to a fading flame that straw or firewood can no longer support.

According to canonical Buddhism, nirvana is not a state of bliss, since such a sensation would only be an extension of the desire to live. The Buddha is referring to the extinction of false desire, not of the whole existence; destruction of the flames of lust and ignorance. Therefore, he distinguishes between two types of nirvana: 1) upadhisesha(fading of human passion); 2) anupadhisesha(fading along with passion and life). The first kind of nirvana is more perfect than the second, because it is accompanied only by the destruction of desire, and not by the deprivation of a person's life. A person can achieve nirvana and continue to live on, or can achieve enlightenment only at the very moment when his soul is separated from the body.

Deciding which path is preferable, the Buddha came to the conclusion that the true path cannot be traversed by those who have lost their strength. There are two extremes that one who has decided on liberation from the constricting bonds of samsara should not follow: on the one hand, the habitual commitment to passions and pleasures derived from sensually comprehended things, and, on the other hand, the habitual commitment to self-mortification, which is painful, ungrateful and useless. There is a middle path that opens the eyes and endows with reason, leading to peace and insight, higher wisdom and nirvana. This path is called in Buddhism noble eightfold path, because it includes the required eight stages of perfection.

1. Right View are in the first step because what we do reflects what we think. Wrong actions come from wrong views, therefore, the best way to prevent wrong actions is the right knowledge and control over its observation.

2. Right aspiration is the result of right seeing. This is the desire for renunciation, the hope of living in love with all things and beings that are in this world, the desire for true humanity.

3. Correct speech. Even right aspirations, especially in order for them to lead to proper results, must be expressed, that is, they must be reflected in right speech. It is necessary to refrain from lying, slander, rude expressions, frivolous conversation.

4. Right Action do not consist in sacrifice or worship of the gods, but in the renunciation of violence, active self-sacrifice and the willingness to give one's life for the good of other people. In Buddhism, there is a provision according to which a person who has secured immortality for himself can help another person achieve enlightenment by transferring part of his merits to him.

5. Right life. Right action leads to a moral life free from deceit, lies, fraud and intrigue. If up to now we have been talking about the outward behavior of a saved person, here attention is drawn to the inner cleansing. The goal of all efforts is to eliminate the cause of sadness, which requires subjective purification.

6. Correct force consists in exercising power over passions, which should prevent the realization of bad qualities and contribute to the strengthening of good qualities with the help of detachment and concentration of the mind. To concentrate, it is necessary to dwell on some good thought, assess the danger of turning a bad thought into reality, divert attention from a bad thought, destroy the cause of its occurrence, distract the mind from the bad one with the help of bodily tension.

7. Right thinking cannot be separated from right effort. In order to avoid mental instability, we must subdue our mind, along with its tossings, distractions and absent-mindedness.

8. Proper calmness - the last stage of the noble eightfold path, which results in the renunciation of emotions and the attainment of a contemplative state.

(Skt. chatvari aryasatyani) - four main provisions (axioms, truths) expressed by the Buddha after achieving enlightenment. These truths are the foundation of all Buddhist schools, regardless of region and name.

Four noble truths

Seeing Siddhartha under a tree, they wanted to say something offensive to him, as they believed that he had betrayed their teachings. However, as they got closer to him, they were unable to say anything other than, "How did you do that? Why are you glowing like that?"

And the Buddha gave his first teachings, which they called the four noble truths:

First truth

Descriptions and explanations in books

Joyful Wisdom book

After completing his observation, he realized that true freedom does not lie in withdrawal from life, but in a deeper and more conscious participation in all its processes. His first thought was, "No one will believe this." Whether spurred, as the legends say, by the calls of the gods or by an all-consuming compassion for the people, he finally left Bodhgaya and traveled west to the ancient city of Varanasi, where, in an open area that became known as Deer Park, he met his former ascetic companions. Although at first they almost rejected him with contempt, because he betrayed the path of severe austerity, yet they could not help but notice that he radiated a confidence and contentment that surpassed anything they had achieved. They sat down to listen to what he was going to tell them. His words were very convincing and so logical that these listeners became his first followers and students.

The principles that the Buddha outlined in Deer Park are commonly referred to as the Four Noble Truths. They comprise a simple, direct analysis of the difficulties and possibilities of the human condition. This analysis constitutes the first of the so-called "Three Turns of the Wheel of Dharma," the successive cycles of teachings penetrating the nature of experience, which the Buddha preached at various times during his forty-five years of wandering through ancient India. Each of the turns, building on the principles expressed in the previous turn, offers a deeper and more insightful understanding of the nature of experience. The Four Noble Truths form the core of all Buddhist paths and traditions. Indeed, the Buddha considered them so important that he recited them many times before the most varied audiences. Together with his later teachings, they have been handed down from generation to generation to our times in a collection of texts called sutras. It is generally accepted that the sutras are records of conversations that actually took place between the Buddha and his disciples.

Book Overcoming Spiritual Materialism

These four noble truths are: the truth about suffering, the truth about the origin of suffering, the truth about the goal, and the truth about the path. We will begin with the truth about suffering, which means that we must begin with the delusions of the monkey, with his madness.

We need to first see the reality of dukkha; this Sanskrit word means "suffering", "dissatisfaction", "pain". Dissatisfaction arises due to a special rotation of the mind: in its movement, as if there is no beginning or end. Thought processes go on uninterruptedly; thoughts about the past, thoughts about the future, thoughts about the present moment. This circumstance is irritating. Thoughts are generated by dissatisfaction and are identical to it. It is dukkha, the recurring feeling that something is still missing, that there is some kind of incompleteness in our life, that something is not going quite right, not quite satisfactory. Therefore, we always try to fill the gap, somehow correct the situation, find an additional piece of pleasure or security. The incessant action of struggle and preoccupation turns out to be very irritating and painful; in the end, we are annoyed by the very fact that "we are us."

So, to understand the truth of dukkha is really to understand the neurosis of the mind. We are drawn with great energy first in one direction, then in the other. Whether we eat or sleep, work or play, in everything we do life contains dukkha, dissatisfaction and pain. If we experience some pleasure, we are afraid to lose it; we achieve more and more pleasure or try to keep what we have. If we suffer from pain, we want to get rid of it. We are disappointed all the time. All our activities involve dissatisfaction.

Somehow it turns out that we arrange our lives in a special way that never allows us to have enough time to really taste it. We are constantly busy, constantly waiting for the next moment; life itself seems to have the quality of constant desire. This is dukkha, the first noble truth. Understanding suffering and resisting it is the first step.

Acutely aware of our dissatisfaction, we begin to look for its cause, its source. As we examine our thoughts and actions, we find that we are constantly struggling to preserve and sustain ourselves. It becomes clear to us that struggle is the root of suffering. Therefore, we try to understand the process of struggle, i.e. understand the development and activity of the "I". This is the second noble truth, the truth about the origin of suffering. As we have established in the chapters on spiritual materialism, many people make the mistake of thinking that since the root of suffering lies in our ego, the goal of spirituality should be to conquer and destroy this self. They struggle to get rid of the heavy hand of the ego, but as we found out earlier, such a struggle is nothing but another expression of the ego. We go in circles trying to improve ourselves through struggle until we realize that this drive to improve is itself a problem. Flashes of insight come to us only when we stop fighting, when there is a light in our struggle, when we stop trying to get rid of thoughts, when we stop taking the side of pious, good thoughts against bad and impure ones, only when we allow ourselves to simply look at the nature of these thoughts.

We begin to understand that within us lies a certain healthy property of wakefulness. In fact, this property is manifested only in the absence of struggle. Thus we discover the third noble truth, the truth about the goal, about the end of the struggle. We only need to drop efforts and strengthen ourselves - and the state of awakening is evident. But we soon realize that simply "leaving things as they are" is only possible for short periods. We need a special discipline that will lead us to what we call peace, when we are able to "leave everything as it is." We must follow the spiritual path. Wandering from suffering to liberation, the ego wears out like an old shoe. Therefore, let us now consider this spiritual path, i.e. the fourth noble truth. The practice of meditation is not an attempt to enter into a special state of mind like a trance; nor is it an attempt to occupy oneself with some particular object.

1. The Noble Truth of Suffering
2. The Noble Truth of the Origin of the Causes of Suffering
3. The Noble Truth of the Possibility of Ending Suffering and Its Causes
4. The Noble Truth of the Path That Leads to the End of Suffering

14th Dalai Lama (lecture) - University of Washington

In fact, all religions have the same motives for love and compassion. Although there are often very large differences in the field of philosophy, the underlying goal of improvement is more or less the same. Each religion has its own special methods. While our cultures naturally differ, our systems converge as the world grows ever closer due to improved communication, providing us with good opportunities to learn from each other. I think this is very useful.

Christianity, for example, has many practices for the benefit of mankind, especially in the fields of education and health. Buddhists can learn a lot here. At the same time, there are Buddhist teachings on deep meditation and ways of philosophical reasoning from which Christians could draw useful cultivation techniques. IN ancient india Buddhists and Hindus borrowed many positions from each other.

Since these systems are basically the same for the benefit of humanity, there is nothing wrong with learning from each other. On the contrary, it will help to develop respect for each other, help to promote harmony and unity. So I will talk a little about Buddhist ideas.

The root of the Buddhist doctrine is in the four noble truths: real suffering, its causes, the suppression of the latter, and the path to it. The four truths consist of two groups of effects and causes: suffering and its causes, the cessation of suffering and the ways of its realization. Suffering is like a disease. External and internal conditions that bring pain are the causes of suffering. The state of recovery from illness is the suppression of suffering and its causes. Medicines that cure ailments are the right ways.

The reasons for considering the effects (suffering and its suppression) before the causes (sources of suffering and ways) are as follows: first of all, we must establish the disease, the real torment, which is the essence of the first noble truth. Then it will no longer be enough just to recognize the disease. For in order to know what medicine to take, it is necessary to understand diseases. Hence, the second of the four truths are the causes or sources of suffering.

It will also not be enough to establish the causes of the disease, you need to determine whether it is possible to cure the ailment. This knowledge is just the third level, that is, that there is a correct suppression of suffering and its causes.

Now that the undesired suffering has been recognized, its causes established, then it has become clear that the disease can be cured, you take medicines, which are remedies for the ailment. It is necessary to be sure of the paths that will lead to a state of liberation from suffering.

The most important thing is to immediately establish suffering. In general, there are three types of suffering: suffering from pain, suffering from change, and complex, pervasive suffering. Suffering from pain is what we usually think of as bodily or mental torment, such as a headache. The desire to be free from this type of suffering is characteristic not only of people, but also of animals. There are ways to avoid some form of such suffering, such as taking medications, putting on warm clothes, removing the source of the disease.

The second level, the suffering of change, is what we superficially perceive as pleasure, but it takes a closer look to understand the true essence of suffering. Take as an example what is usually considered a pleasure - buying a new car. When you purchase it, you are extremely happy, delighted and satisfied, but as you use it, problems arise. If the causes of pleasure were internal, then the more you use the cause of satisfaction, the correspondingly more your pleasure should increase, but this does not happen. As you get used to it more and more, you begin to experience displeasure. Therefore, the essence of suffering is also manifested in the suffering of change.

The third level of suffering serves as the basis for the first two. It represents our own mental and physical polluted complexes. It is called complex, pervasive suffering, because it pervades and applies to all types of rebirth of beings, is part of the basis of present suffering, and also causes future suffering. There is no way to get out of this type of suffering other than to stop the series of rebirths.

These three types of suffering are established at the very beginning. Thus, not only are there no feelings that would be identified with suffering, but also there are no external or internal phenomena, depending on which such feelings would arise. The combination of minds and mental factors is called suffering.

What are the causes of suffering? What does it depend on? Among these, karmic sources and disturbing emotions are the second of the four noble truths about the true cause of suffering. Karma or action consists of bodily, verbal and mental deeds. From the point of view of the present reality or essence, deeds are of three kinds: virtuous, non-virtuous and indifferent. Virtuous deeds are those that bring about pleasant or good consequences. Non-virtuous deeds are those that cause painful or bad consequences.

The three main disturbing passions are defilement, desire and hatred. They splash out and many other types of disturbing emotions, such as envy and dislike. In order to stop karmic actions, these disturbing passions, which act as a cause, must be stopped. If we compare karma and violent emotions, then the latter will be the main cause of suffering.

When you ask yourself whether it is possible to eliminate restless passions, you are already touching on the third noble truth, true cessation. If disturbing emotions were in the very nature of the mind, they could not be removed. For example, if hatred were in the nature of the mind, then we would feel the need for hatred for a long time, but this clearly does not happen. The same is true for attachment. Therefore, the nature of the mind, or consciousness, is not contaminated by defilements. Defilements are removable, fit to be eliminated from the ground, the mind.

It is clear that a good relationship the opposite of bad. For example, love and anger cannot occur simultaneously in the same person. As long as you feel anger towards some object, you will not be able to feel love in the same moment. Conversely, as long as you experience love, you cannot feel anger. This indicates that these types of consciousness are mutually exclusive, opposite. Naturally, as you become more inclined towards one type of relationship, the other will weaken and weaken. That is why, by practicing and multiplying compassion and love - the good side of the mind - you will automatically eradicate the other side of it.

Thus, it is established that the sources of suffering can be gradually eliminated. The complete disappearance of the cause of suffering is right cessation. This is the final liberation - this is the true, world-soothing salvation. This is the third of the four noble truths.

What path must you take in order to achieve this cessation? Since faults are predominantly due to the actions of the mind, the antidote must also be mental. Indeed, one must know about the ultimate existence of all phenomena, but the most important thing is to know the final state of the mind.

First you need to realize anew, directly and perfectly, the non-dual, absolute nature of the mind exactly as it is. This is the way of seeing. Then, at the next level, this perception becomes ordinary. This is already the path of meditation. But before these two levels, it is necessary to achieve a dual meditative stability, which is the unity of tranquility and special insight. Speaking in general terms, this must be done in order to have a forceful wise consciousness, for which it is necessary first of all to develop the stability of consciousness, called tranquility.

These are the levels of the path - the fourth noble truth, required for the realization of the third noble truth - the truth of cessation, which in turn eliminates the first two noble truths, namely: suffering and its causes.

The Four Truths are the core structure of Buddhist doctrine and practice.

Question: At least outwardly, there seems to be a difference between the Buddhist principle of elimination and the importance for the West of having a purpose in life, which implies that desire is good.

Answer: There are two types of desire: one is devoid of reason and mixed with violent passions, the second is when you look at the good as good and try to achieve it. The last type of desire is correct in view of the fact that any living being is involved in activity. For example, to believe that material progress, based on the understanding that this progress serves humanity and, therefore, is good, is also true.

The ultimate goal of Buddhism is deliverance from suffering and reincarnation. The Buddha said: "Both in the past and in the present, I say only one thing: suffering and the annihilation of suffering." Despite the negative initial position of this formula, the goal set in it also has a positive aspect, because it is possible to put an end to suffering only by realizing one's human potential for kindness and happiness. One who attains the state of complete self-realization is said to have attained nirvana. Nirvana is the greatest good in Buddhism, the ultimate and highest good. It is both a concept and a state. As a concept, it reflects a certain vision of the realization of human capabilities, outlines the contours and forms ideal life; as a state, over time, it is embodied in a person striving for it.

The desire for nirvana is understandable, but how to achieve it? The answer is partially contained in the previous chapters. We know that a righteous life is highly valued in Buddhism; to live virtuously is a necessary condition. However, some scientists reject this idea. They argue that accumulating merit through doing good deeds actually prevents the attainment of nirvana. Good deeds, in their opinion, create karma, and karma leads to a series of rebirths. Then, they reason, it follows that in order to achieve nirvana it is necessary to transcend karma and all other considerations of ethics. There are two problems with this understanding of the issue. First, why, if a virtuous act is an obstacle to nirvana, do the sacred texts constantly call for the performance of good deeds? Second, why do those who have attained enlightenment, such as the Buddha, continue to live a highly moral life?

The solution of these problems is possible if a highly moral life is only a part of the perfection achieved by a person, which is necessary for immersion in nirvana. Then, if virtue (strength, Skt. - sila) is one of the main elements of this ideal, then it cannot be self-sufficient and needs some kind of addition. This other necessary element is wisdom, the ability to perceive (panya, Skt. prajya). "Wisdom" in Buddhism means a deep philosophical understanding of the human condition. It requires an insight into the nature of reality, achieved through long and deep reflection. This is one type of gnosis, or direct realization of the truth, which deepens over time and eventually culminates in the enlightenment experienced by the Buddha.

1. The truth of suffering (dukkha).

But, monks, what is the Noble Truth of suffering? Birth is suffering, aging is suffering, sickness is suffering, death is suffering. Pain, grief, sorrow, sadness, despair is suffering. Union with the unlovable is suffering, separation from the beloved is suffering. The unattainability of the desired is suffering. Thus, the five states (skandhas) of personality are suffering.

So, nirvana is the unity of virtue and wisdom. The relationship between them in the language of philosophy can be expressed as follows: both virtue and wisdom are “necessary” conditions for nirvana, the presence of only one of them is “not enough”. Only together they make it possible to reach nirvana. In one of the early texts, they are compared with two hands, washing and cleansing each other, a person deprived of one of them is imperfect (D.i.124).

If wisdom is indeed an absolutely necessary companion of virtue, what does a person need to know in order to achieve enlightenment? To know the truth perceived by the Buddha on the night of enlightenment and subsequently set forth in the first sermon, which he delivered in a deer park near Benares. This sermon speaks of four points known as the Four Noble Truths. They state that: 1) life is suffering, 2) suffering is generated by desire or craving for pleasure, 3) suffering can be stopped, 4) there is a way leading to getting rid of suffering. Sometimes, as an illustration of the relationship between them, a comparison is made with medicine, while the Buddha is compared with a healer who found a cure for the ailment of life. Firstly, he diagnoses the disease, secondly, he explains its cause, thirdly, he determines the remedies for it, and fourthly, he proceeds to treatment.

American psychiatrist M. Scott Peck opens his best-selling book The Road Less Traveled with the words: "Life is hard." Speaking of the First Noble Truth, he adds: "This is a great truth, one of the greatest truths." Known in Buddhism as the "Truth of Suffering", it became the cornerstone of the Buddha's teachings. According to this truth, suffering (dukkha, Skt. - duhkha) is an integral part of life, and defines the state of a person as a state of "dissatisfaction". It includes many kinds of suffering, beginning with the physical, such as birth, aging, sickness, and death. Most often they are associated with physical pain, and there is a much more serious problem - the inevitability of repeating this cycle in each subsequent life, both for the person himself and for his loved ones. People are powerless in the face of these realities and, despite the latest discoveries in medicine, are still subject to illness and accidents due to their bodily nature. In addition to physical pain, the truth of suffering indicates its emotional and psychological forms: "grief, sorrow, sadness and despair" . They can sometimes present more painful problems than physical suffering: few people have a life without grief and grief, while there are many severe psychological conditions, such as chronic depression, which cannot be completely eliminated.

In addition to these obvious examples, the Truth of Suffering mentions a more subtle form of suffering that can be defined as "existential." This follows from the statement: “The unattainability of what is desired is suffering”, that is, failure, disappointment, the collapse of illusions experienced when hopes do not come true and reality does not correspond to our desires. The Buddha was not a pessimist and, of course, he knew from his own experience when he was a young prince that there can be pleasant moments in life. The problem, however, is that Good times do not last forever, sooner or later they go away or a person gets bored with what seemed new and promising. In this sense, the word dukkha has a more abstract and deeper meaning: it indicates that even a life devoid of hardships may not bring satisfaction and self-realization. In this and many other contexts, the word "dissatisfaction" expresses the meaning of "duhkha" more accurately than "suffering."

The truth of suffering makes it possible to reveal what is the main reason why human life does not bring complete satisfaction. The statement that "the five skandhas of personality are suffering" refers to the teaching given by the Buddha in the second sermon (Vin.i.13). We list them: the body (rupa), sensation (vedana), images of perception (samjna), desires and drives (sanskar), consciousness (vijnana). There is no need to consider each in detail, since it is not so much what is included in this list that is important to us, as what is not included. In particular, the doctrine makes no mention of the soul or "I", understood as an eternal and unchanging spiritual entity. This position of the Buddha departs from orthodox Indian religious tradition Brahmanism, which claimed that every person has an eternal soul (Atman), which is either part of the metaphysical absolute - Brahman (an impersonal deity), or identical to it.

The Buddha said that he did not find evidence of the existence of either the human soul (Atman) or its cosmic counterpart (Brahman). On the contrary, his approach - practical and empirical - is closer to psychology than to theology. His explanation of human nature, which is formed from five states, is much like explaining the structure of a car, consisting of wheels, gearbox, engine, steering, body. Of course, unlike scientists, he believed that the moral essence of a person (which can be called "spiritual DNA") survives death and incarnates again. Claiming that the five states of personality are suffering, the Buddha pointed out that human nature cannot become the basis of permanent happiness. Since the human being is made up of five ever-changing "attributes", sooner or later suffering will inevitably arise, just as a car eventually wears out and breaks down. Suffering is thus woven into the very fabric of our being.

The content of the Truth of Suffering is partly explained by the fact that the Buddha saw the first three signs - the old man, the leper, and the dead - and realized that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. Many, turning to Buddhism, find that its assessment of the human condition is pessimistic, but Buddhists believe that their religion is not pessimistic or optimistic, but realistic, that the Truth of suffering only objectively states the facts. If she seems pessimistic, it is due to the long-standing tendency of people to avoid unpleasant truths and "look for the bright side in everything." That is why the Buddha noted that the Truth of suffering is extremely difficult to understand. It is like a person realizing that he is seriously ill, which no one wants to admit, and that there is no cure.

If life is suffering, how does it arise? The second noble truth, the Truth of Origination (samudaya), explains that suffering arises from craving or "lust for life" (tanha). Passion ignites suffering like fire fuels firewood. In his sermon (C.iv.19) the Buddha spoke of how all human experience is "blazing" with desires. Fire is an apt metaphor for desire, as it consumes what feeds it without being satisfied. It spreads quickly, moves to new objects and hurts, like unsatisfied desires.

2. The truth of arising (samudaya).

Here, O monks, is the Truth of the origin of suffering. This lust for life, attachment to illusory earthly values ​​(tanha), which leads to rebirth, is associated with a violent delight in form. 1) sensual pleasures, 2) thirst for "prosperity", being, 3) thirst for "destruction", non-existence.

It is the desire to live, to enjoy life, that is the cause of rebirth. If we continue to compare the five "attributes" of a person with a car, then desire is the fuel that sets it in motion. Although rebirth is generally thought to occur from life to life, it also happens moment to moment: a person is said to be reborn in seconds if these five elements change and interact, driven by the desire for pleasurable experiences. The continuity of man's existence from one life to another is simply the result of the accumulated power of desire.

The truth of arising states that craving manifests itself in three main forms, the first of which is the craving for sensual pleasures. It takes the form of a desire for pleasure through objects of perception, such as pleasant tastes, sensations, smells, sounds. The second is the desire for "prosperity". It is about the deep, instinctive longing for existence that propels us into new lives and new experiences. The third type of manifestation of passionate desire is the desire not for possession, but for “destruction”. This is the reverse side of the thirst for life, embodied in the instinct of denial, the rejection of what is unpleasant and undesirable. The desire for destruction can also lead to self-denial and self-denial.

Low self-esteem and thoughts like “I can’t do anything” or “I’m a failure” are manifestations of such an attitude directed at oneself. In extreme forms, it can lead to physical self-destruction, such as suicide. Physical self-torture, which the Buddha eventually abandoned, can also be seen as a manifestation of self-denial.

So does this mean that any desire is evil? One must be very careful in approaching such conclusions. Although the word tanha is often translated as "desire" (desire), it has a narrower meaning - desire, in a sense perverted by excess or bad purpose. It is usually directed towards sensual arousal and pleasure. However, not all desires are like this, and Buddhist sources often speak of positive desires (chanda). To strive for a positive goal for yourself and for others (for example, to achieve nirvana), to wish happiness to others, to want the world that remains after you to become better - these are examples of positive and beneficial desires that are not defined by the concept of "tanha".

If bad desires restrain and fetter a person, then good ones give him strength and freedom. To see the difference, let's take smoking as an example. The desire of a heavy smoker to smoke another cigarette is tanha, since it is aimed at nothing but momentary pleasure, obsessive, limited, cyclical, and will lead to nothing but another cigarette (and as a side effect - to poor health). On the other hand, the desire of a heavy smoker to quit smoking will be beneficial, as it will break the vicious circle of an obsessive bad habit, and will serve to promote health and well-being.

In the Truth of Origination, the tanha represents the "three roots of evil" mentioned above - passion, hatred and delusion. In Buddhist art, they are depicted as a rooster, a pig and a snake, rushing in a circle in the center of the "wheel of life", which we spoke about in the third chapter, while they form a circle - the tail of one holds in the mouth of the other. Since the thirst for life generates only another desire, rebirths form a vicious cycle, people are born again and again. How this happens is explained in detail by the theory of causation, which is called patikka-samuppada (Sanskrit - pratitya-samutpada - dependent origination). This theory explains how desire and ignorance lead to a chain of rebirths consisting of 12 stages. But for us now it is more important not to consider these stages in detail, but to understand the main principle underlying them, which applies not only to human psychology, but to reality in general.

3. Truth of cessation (nirodha).

Here, O monks, is the Truth of the cessation of suffering. This is the renunciation of the thirst for life (tanha), the departure from it, the renunciation of it, the liberation from it, the deliverance from attachment to it.

In the most general terms, the essence of this theory is that every effect has a cause, in other words, everything arises in interdependence. According to this, all phenomena are part of a causal chain, nothing exists independently, in and of itself. Therefore, the Universe is not a collection of static objects, but a plexus of causes and effects that is in constant motion. Moreover, just as a person's personality can be completely decomposed into five "attributes", and all phenomena can be reduced to their constituent components without finding any "essence" in them. Everything that arises has three signs of existence, namely: misunderstanding of the frailty of earthly life (dukkha), variability (anigga) and lack of self-existence (anatta). "Deeds and things" are not satisfying, because they are impermanent (and therefore unstable and unreliable), because they do not have their own nature, independent of universal cause-and-effect processes.

It is obvious that the Buddhist universe is characterized primarily by cyclical changes: at the psychological level - the endless process of desire and its satisfaction; on the personal - a chain of deaths and rebirths; on the cosmic one - by the creation and destruction of galaxies. All this is based on the principles of the Patikka Samuppada theory, the provisions of which were later thoroughly developed by Buddhism.

The Third Noble Truth is the Truth of cessation (nirodha). It says that when you get rid of the thirst for life, suffering stops and nirvana comes. As we know from the story of the life of the Buddha, nirvana has two forms: the first occurs during life ("nirvana with a remainder"), and the second after death ("nirvana without a remainder"). Buddha reached nirvana at the age of 35 while sitting under a fig tree. When he was 80, he plunged into the last nirvana, from which there is no return through rebirth.

"Nirvana" literally means "extinguishing" or "blowing out", just like the flame of a candle goes out. But what exactly is "extinguishing"? Maybe this is the soul of a person, his "I", his individuality? It cannot be the soul, since Buddhism generally denies its existence. It is not “I” or self-consciousness, although nirvana certainly involves a radical change in the state of consciousness, freed from attachment to “I” and “mine”. In fact, the flame of the triad is extinguished - passion, hatred and delusion, which leads to reincarnation. Indeed, the simplest definition of "nirvana with a remainder" is "the end of passion, hatred and delusion" (C.38.1). This is a psychological and moral phenomenon, a transformed state of a person, which is characterized by peace, deep spiritual joy, compassion, refined and penetrating perception. Negative mental states and emotions, such as doubt, anxiety, worry, and fear, are absent in an enlightened mind. Some or all of these qualities are inherent in saints in many religions, to some extent, ordinary people may also possess some of them. However, the Enlightened Ones, like the Buddha or the Arhat, are inherent in full.

What happens to a person when he dies? There is no clear answer to this question in the early sources. Difficulties in understanding this arise precisely in connection with the last nirvana, when the flame of the thirst for life goes out, reincarnations stop and a person who has achieved enlightenment is not born again. The Buddha said that asking where the Enlightened One is after death is like asking where the flame goes when it is blown out. The flame, of course, does not “go away” anywhere, the combustion process simply stops. Getting rid of the thirst for life and ignorance is tantamount to cutting off the supply of oxygen necessary for combustion. However, one should not assume that the comparison with the flame means that "nirvana without a trace" is annihilation. The sources clearly indicate that such an understanding is erroneous, as well as the conclusion that nirvana is the eternal existence of the soul.

Buddha was against various interpretations nirvana, attaching primary importance to the desire to achieve it. He compared those who asked about nirvana to a person wounded by a poisoned arrow, who, instead of taking out the arrow, persistently asks meaningless questions in this situation about who released it, what was his name, what kind of family he was, how far he stood etc. (M.i.426). In full accordance with the Buddha's reluctance to develop this theme, early sources define nirvana primarily in terms of negation, i.e., as "the absence of desire," "suppression of thirst," "quenching," "extinguishing." Fewer positive definitions can be found, including such as "auspiciousness", "good", "purity", "peace", "truth", "distant shore". Some texts indicate that nirvana is transcendent, as "unborn, unarisen, uncreated and unformed" (Udana, 80), but it is not known how this should be interpreted. As a result, the nature of "nirvana without a trace" remains a mystery to all who have not experienced it. However, what we can be sure of is that it means the end of suffering and rebirth.

4. Truth of the path (magga).

Here, O monks, is the Truth of the path (magga), which leads to the cessation of suffering. This is the noble "eightfold path", which consists of 1) right view, 2) right thinking, 3) right speech, 4) right behavior, 5) right way of sustaining life, 6) right exertion of strength, 7) right memory, 8) correct concentration.

The Fourth Noble Truth - the Truth of the Path (magga, Skt. - marga) - explains how the transition from samsara to nirvana should take place. In the hustle and bustle of everyday life, few people stop to think about the most fulfilling way of life. These questions worried the Greek philosophers, and the Buddha also contributed to their understanding. He believed that the highest form of life is a life that leads to the improvement of virtue and knowledge, and the "eightfold path" defines a way of life with which this can be put into practice. It is also called the "middle way" because it passes between two extremes: a life of excess and strict asceticism. It includes eight steps, divided into three categories - morality, concentration (meditation) and wisdom. They define the parameters of human good and indicate where the sphere of human prosperity lies. In the category of "morality" (sila), moral qualities are improved, and in the category of "wisdom" (panya), intellectual qualities are developed. The role of meditation will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.

Although the "path" consists of eight parts, one should not think of them as stages that a person goes through, approaching nirvana, leaving them behind. On the contrary, the eight steps represent the paths of continuous improvement of "morality", "meditation" and "wisdom". "Correct views" means first the recognition of the Buddhist teachings, and then their empirical confirmation; "correct thinking" - commitment to the formation of correct attitudes; “correct speech” is speaking the truth, showing thoughtfulness and interest in conversation, and “correct behavior” is refraining from bad deeds such as killing, stealing or bad behavior (sensual pleasures). "The right way of sustaining life" means refraining from doing things that harm others; “correct application of forces” - gaining control over your thoughts and developing positive mindsets; “correct memory” is the development of constant understanding, “correct concentration” is the achievement of a state of the deepest peace of mind, which is the aim of various methods of concentration of consciousness and integration of the personality.

1. Right View Wisdom

2. Right thinking (panya)

3. Correct speech Morality

4. Proper Behavior(Shila)

5. The right way to sustain life

6. Proper application of forces Meditation

7. Correct memory (samadhi)

8. Correct concentration

The Eightfold Path and its Three Parts

In this regard, the practice of the Eightfold Path is a kind of modeling process: these eight principles show how a Buddha will live, and by living like a Buddha, one can gradually become one. The Eightfold Path is thus a path of self-transformation, an intellectual, emotional and moral restructuring in which a person is reoriented from narrow, selfish goals to the development of the possibilities of self-realization. Through the pursuit of knowledge (panya) and moral virtue (sila), ignorance and selfish desires are overcome, the causes that give rise to suffering are eliminated, and nirvana sets in.

It is very difficult to accurately translate the concept of "dukkha". Speaking of suffering, we emphasize only a pessimistic view of things, a tendency to notice only the bad, and do not take into account the good that happens to us in the process of acquiring experience. It is important to understand that the main key word is the word "experience". The Buddha points out that it is necessary to value the idea of ​​life as a whole, that is, to see life in all its fullness and complexity - the way a person lives it, and not to snatch only pluses and minuses from life experience. The Buddha's insight can only be fully understood if we realize that the first three noble truths together constitute a comprehensive analysis of the conditions of human existence. Whatever we strive for and no matter how much we achieve, in the end it is not enough for us to feel satisfaction with what we have achieved. Dukkha is a deep-rooted feeling of dissatisfaction with a world in which we cannot fulfill our longing desires. One way or another, it is not in our power to change the world around and thereby achieve self-fulfillment. Rather, we should look for a cure for dissatisfaction within ourselves. One of the main reasons for this is that the world - known to us through the experience of samsara, as the Buddhists call it - is characterized by impermanence. Everything that is impermanent (anigga) in this world is therefore subject to constant change. This is the second aspect of dukkha that the Buddha points out in his discourse. The variability of the world is its essence, which is the cause of dukkha

Second Noble Truth: Cause of Suffering (Samudaya)

The second noble truth reveals to us an even more important meaning of dukkha. We make a fairly clear distinction between ourselves and the world around us, which is filled with things, events, people. The truth, says the Buddha, is that nothing is at rest: time is in motion. We are part of a universe in continuous becoming; there is no rest in the universe, but only constant change underlying becoming. Here we are talking about the Buddhist concept of anatta (negating the self of a person), which is the third aspect of dukkha. The Buddha said that we are a combination of ever-changing forces or energies that can be divided into five groups (skandhas or aggregates: substances, sensations, awareness aggregate, mental formation aggregate, consciousness aggregate).

Third Noble Truth: Cessation of Suffering (nirodha)

The word "nirodha" means "to control". The exercise of control over craving or desire for attachment is the third lesson.

Nirodha is the quenching of craving or craving, which is achieved through the eradication of attachment. The result will be a state called "nirvana" ("nibbana") in which the fire of desire has ceased to burn and in which there is no more suffering. One of the difficulties that arise in front of us in trying to clarify the concept of nirvana for ourselves is that the word "nirvana" denotes a state. in which something happens, but does not describe what that state actually looks like. Buddhists argue that there is no need to think about the signs of nirvana, because such an approach will not give anything at all: our attitude to karmic conditioning is important here. In other words, the state of nirvana means liberation from everything that causes suffering.

The Fourth Noble Truth: The Path to End Suffering (magga)

This is known as the so-called middle path, which avoids the two extremes, such as indulging in sensual pleasures and torturing the flesh. It is also known as the Noble Eightfold Path because it indicates the eight states by which one can achieve purification of the mind, tranquility and intuition.

These eight steps represent the three aspects of Buddhist practice: moral conduct (sila); discipline of the mind (samadhi); wisdom (panya or prajna).

Eightfold Path

1) Righteous comprehension; 2) Righteous thinking; 3) Righteous speech; 4) Righteous action; 5) Righteous life; 6) Righteous work; 7) Righteous vigilance and self-discipline; 8) Righteous concentration.

A person who lives by these provisions gets rid of suffering and reaches nirvana. But to achieve it is not so easy, you need to overcome ten obstacles that lie in wait for a person throughout his life: 1- the illusion of personality; 2- doubt; 3- superstition; 4- bodily passions; 5- hatred; 6- attachment to the earth; 7- desire for pleasure and tranquility; 8- pride; 9- complacency; 10 - ignorance.