Phenomenology in philosophy is basic. Phenomenology

Phenomenology represents one of the trends in philosophy of the 20th century, the task of which is to describe a phenomenon (phenomenon, event, experience) based on the primary experience of the cognitive consciousness (transcendental Self). Its founder is Husserl, although he had predecessors: Franz Bertano and Karl Stumpf.

Husserl's book "Logical Research" is the starting point of the emergence of this direction, which had a huge impact on the emergence and development of phenomenological psychology, phenomenological sociology, philosophy of religion, ontology, philosophy of mathematics and natural science, metaphysics, hermeneutics, existentialism and personalism.

The core of this direction is the concept of intentionality- the property of human consciousness of being focused on a specific subject, that is, a person’s interest in considering the philosophical aspect of a specific object.

Phenomenology sets as its goal the creation of a universal science, which would serve as a justification for all other sciences and knowledge in general, and would have a strict justification. Phenomenology seeks to describe the intentionality of the life of consciousness, the existence of personality, as well as the fundamental foundations of human existence.

A characteristic feature of this method is the rejection of any dubious premises. This direction affirms the simultaneous continuity and at the same time irreducibility of consciousness, human existence, personality, the psychophysical nature of man, spiritual culture and society.

Husserl put forward the slogan " Back to the things themselves!" which orients a person towards detachment from functional and causal connections between the objective world and our consciousness. That is, his call is to restore the connection between consciousness and objects, when an object does not turn into consciousness, but is perceived by consciousness as an object that has certain properties without studying its functions, structure, etc. He defended pure consciousness, free from dogmas and imposed thought patterns.

IN 2 main research methods were proposed:

• Evidence is direct contemplation,
• Phenomenological reduction is the liberation of consciousness from natural (naturalistic) attitudes.

Phenomenological reduction is not a naive immersion in the world, but concentrates attention on what consciousness experiences in the world that is given to us. These experiences are then used simply as concrete facts, but as ideal entities. This is then reduced to the pure consciousness of our transcendental Self.

“...The field of phenomenology is an analysis of what is revealed a priori in direct intuition, fixations of directly perceived entities and their interrelations and their descriptive cognition in the systemic union of all layers in transcendentally pure consciousness,” - Husserl, "Ideas".

Using the method of phenomenological reduction, man gradually comes to understand that existence is preceded by pure ego or pure consciousness with the entities it experiences.

Phenomenology thus covers a huge field from simple contemplation of an object to philosophical reflection on the basis of its semantic cultures.

Husserl sought not only to understand the world, but also to construct, to the creation of a true world, in the center of which is man himself. He wrote: "Philosophical knowledge creates not only special results, but also a human attitude, which immediately invades the rest of practical life... It forms a new intimate community between people, we could say a community of purely ideal interests between people who live by philosophy, bound unforgettably by ideas that are not only useful to everyone, but identically mastered by everyone.”

Currently, phenomenological research methods are used in psychiatry, sociology, literary criticism and aesthetics. The largest phenomenology centers are located in Belgium and Germany. In the 90s of the 20th century, centers were created in Moscow and Prague. The International Institute for Advanced Phenomenological Research and Education is located in the USA.

Husserl

Edmund Husserl (1859 - 1938)- German philosopher, founder phenomenology . Author of essays: " Logical research ", "Crisis of European Sciences ", etc.

In early phenomenology, Husserl studied the problems of science and scientificity, formulated the idea " philosophy as a strict science "The principle of strict science, Husserl believes, has not yet been truly realized. In science, Husserl sees the highest value and the most important asset of humanity. He rationalist in the interpretation of logic and mathematics as the most reliable sciences. The task of philosophy Husserl is convinced that it is to provide a theoretical basis for specific sciences, as well as science in general, to answer the question: why is there science?

Husserl sees a danger for science in relativism and skepticism, the source of which is subjectivism and psychologism, in particular, " logical psychologism ". He's writing: “There are, in fact, only two parties. Logic is a theoretical discipline, independent of psychology and at the same time formal and demonstrative,” says one of them. For the other, logic is a doctrine of thinking dependent on psychology, and the possibility of that “so that logic has the character of a formal and demonstrative discipline in the sense of arithmetic, which is a model in the eyes of representatives of the first party.” Husserl considers himself to be a member of the first party, completely rejecting the positions of the second party. Husserl also rejects all attempts to construct the logic of “proper” thinking , if for this it is necessary to choose psychological research as the initial foundation. He sees the main mistake of psychologism is that it does not allow any content of knowledge that does not depend on the subjective organization of the knower.

Husserl puts forward hypothesis of the objectivity of human thinking : the content of cognitive acts, if they are true, does not depend either on man or on humanity; truth cannot be subjective. “What is true is absolute, true “in itself”; truth is identically one, whether people or monsters, angels or gods perceive it in judgment.” Recognizing logic as part of psychology is a confusion of two completely alien spheres of knowledge. Psychology and logic, Husserl is convinced, differ in " subject". Psychology explores facts that occur over time, phenomena that change and evolve. Logics has as its subject the meaning of cognitive acts, the internal connections of meanings with each other and their unity. The subject of logic is not thinking itself, but what is thought - "imaginary" in thinking. The subject of psychology is something real. The subject of logic is the ideal, which in itself is unchangeable and timeless. It is necessary to make a strict distinction between a judgment as an ongoing mental experience and the meaning that is experienced in this judgment.

Exists fundamental difference between psychological and logical laws . The first regulate phenomena, are derived from observation of facts and are empirical, inductive, and probabilistic in nature. Logical laws regulate the connections of statements with each other, govern the ideal unity of cognitive contents. The logical law has nothing to do with any facts. Logical connections are not factual, but ideal. Logical laws are a priori in nature and are not known inductively, but at the direct discretion .

One should also distinguish, Husserl believes, between recognizing something as true and truth as such. Admitting the truth may or may not be implemented. It may be more intense or weaker. It can change its nature. Truth as such eternal, unchangeable in its very meaning. If truth depended on our ordinary thinking, then it would arise and disappear along with the movement of our mind, in any case, with the disappearance of the human race. But truth by its nature lies outside the sphere of origin and disappearance, outside the sphere of time. Truth is a certain unity of significance in the timeless and absolute kingdom of ideas . Husserl writes: “We perceive truth not as an empirical content that appears and disappears again in the stream of mental experiences; it is not a phenomenon among phenomena, but it is an experience in a different sense - in which the general experience, the idea, will be experience.”

"Not through induction, but through apodictic evidence,- Husserl further writes, - receive logical laws justification and justification. What is profoundly justified is not the simple probability of their meaning, but this very meaning or the truth itself... We directly comprehend not the simple probability, but the very truth of logical laws.” Statements that are empirically or psychologically completely impossible can also be obvious, for example, operations with huge numbers. Such evidence has a purely ideal character and is a direct consequence of the logical laws themselves: “Evidence... is nothing other than the “experience” of truth. Truth... is experienced only in the sense in which the ideal can generally be experienced in a real act... What is judged as obvious is not only is discussed (that is, thought in a judgment, statement, statement), but is also present in the very experience of the judgment... The experience of the coincidence of the thinkable with the present, the experienced, which is thought - between the experienced meaning of the statement and the experienced correlation of things, is evidence, and the idea of ​​​​this coincidence - the truth."

True must be universally valid, transcendental, independent of opinion, reality and sociality. It is capable of self-discovery in spite of and outside of any discursive thinking.

Logical truths - the sphere of the ideal, they do not have "human" character. The ideal does not have the status of existence; it represents a world of pure essences. The ideality of truth lies in its unity. Truth is always absolute truth. Logical truths, their ideal existence mean universality, absolute obligatory nature in themselves, the unity of their meanings. Each truth in itself, Husserl argues, remains as it is, retains its ideal being. The truth is not found "Somewhere in empty space, there is a unity of meaning in the supratemporal kingdom of truth. It belongs to the realm of the absolutely obligatory, where we include everything whose obligatory nature is certain for us or, at least, represents a reasonable guess, as well as everything vague for our understanding is a circle of indirect and uncertain guesses about existence, therefore, a circle of everything that is necessary, although we have not yet known it and, perhaps, we will never know it.”

Husserl formulates the main ideas for building a pure logic project . Logic must be the science on which the building of all other sciences, both theoretical and practical, would be based. Pure logic, according to Husserl, - "science about science ", "theory theory ". It explores questions concerning the conditions of possibility of science or theory in general. At the same time By science Husserl means not a subjective connection of cognitive acts, judgments and methods, but an objective, ideal connection of true positions. Such a connection is a correlate of the connection between the things themselves, which creates the objective unity of science or theory.

"Pure logic "Husserl sets himself the following tasks :
1) Establishment primary concepts , which construct the idea of ​​theoretical unity of knowledge. These are concepts (categories) of meaning belonging to two classes:
A) elementary forms of connection (hypothetical and disjunctive connection of judgments, subject and predicate), b) formal subject categories: subject, content, unity, set, number, relation, connection. 2) Pure logic must establish laws that have their basis in the indicated categorical concepts. Theories are built on the basis of such laws: the theory of inference, syllogistic, set theory, etc. These laws form, as it were, that ideal fund from which each specific theory borrows the ideal foundations of its essence. 3) Pure logic must establish a priori types (forms) of theories and the corresponding laws of their connection.

To build pure logic according to the specified program, long and intense preliminary work is necessary. The logical is not given directly , as such, in all its purity and originality. Logical elements and formations are given directly in close intertwining and intertwining with a number of other phenomena and phenomena, primarily mental. The task of identifying in purity the logical with its elements and their relationships and separating from the logical everything extraneous to it must be undertaken by phenomenology . Phenomenology should become the foundation on which the building will grow "pure logic".

Phenomenology itself is alien to any theory. She marks pre-theoretical moment of research . Phenomenology precedes not only logic, but also psychology. It must describe pure consciousness as such, not guided by any other motives than those of immediate reality. She must provide presuppositionless theory of knowledge and logic . The meaning of this lack of premise is as follows: "the exclusion of all those assumptions that cannot be fully realized phenomenologically." To do this, you need to move away from any metaphysical questions and their solutions. Phenomenology is not a science in the sense of " explanations from reasons ". She only gives "a general explanation of the ideal essence or meaning of cognitive thinking." It seeks to reveal the idea of ​​knowledge from the side of its constitutive elements or laws; to comprehend the ideal meaning of specific connections in which the objectivity of knowledge is expressed.

According to Husserl, phenomenology precedes epistemology . It is the premise of all philosophy in general. Phenomenology can only be the study of essence, not existence. Whatever "introspection" and any judgment based on such "experience" lies beyond it. The subject of phenomenology is something that is constantly happening: constantly directed perception, memory, etc., expressed in strict concepts of essence. Phenomenology studies something psychically-immediately-present . Exactly like this "phenomenology of consciousness" primary data analysis, yes the only way to build strictly scientific philosophy .

The leading maxim of Husserl’s phenomenology is the following: "To the things themselves!" . He's writing: “We intend to turn to the things themselves. To speak about things rationally or scientifically means to conform to the things themselves, respectively, from speeches and opinions to return to the things themselves, interrogated in their self-givenness, leaving aside all prejudices that are not related to them.”

The first methodological principle of phenomenology is principle of evidence (reliability, evidence). Husserl writes: “I should not make judgments or assume significance if they are not drawn by me from evidence, not from experiences in which existing things and states of affairs are present to me as themselves.” He explores the nature of evidence as initial certainty and evidence. The idea of ​​purification, isolation of consciousness permeates all phenomenology at all stages of its evolution.

People in their lives come from " natural installation ": "... For all of us, people, - writes Husserl, - the world is constantly and always taken for granted, the world around us is common to all of us; it is, without any doubt, present; moreover, in the course of direct and freely expanding experience, it is a world accessible to immediate grasp and observation." The world, based on a natural attitude, including facts of a socio-historical order, is accepted as the only true reality, i.e. there is no doubt about its reality. On such an installation rests the science . With a natural attitude, our consciousness is directed not at acts of consciousness, but at what is implied in these acts

items. To move to a phenomenological approach, you need to take a "unnatural" point of view.

Husserl suggests phenomenological reduction program . He suggested that consciousness has an immanent fundamental property - intentionality. Intentionality of consciousness prescribes immanent objectivity to the phenomena of consciousness. This is how Husserl solves the problem of the relationship between being and consciousness, establishing the correspondence of knowledge to external reality. At the same time, Husserl, like Kant, speaks only about the world (reality), which is constituted in our consciousness. For him consciousness and being (thingness) are one whole . Husserl does not refuse to recognize a world transcendental to consciousness, but he proceeds from the fact that the world is always given to a person (me) in consciousness. Peace is possible only as a correlate of consciousness. The world is always " my world ", as I represent it in my consciousness. The world of experience is also given to me only as "my world", it retains its significance only as a phenomenon of consciousness. For Husserl, it turns out that there is no difference between the transcendent and the immanent. He notes that if we can talk about a certain transcendence of the world, then only in its immanent version: all phenomena "must by their nature be 'awareness of' their objects, whether the objects themselves are real or not." Consciousness is always characterized by objectivity, focus on an object. Consciousness is always "consciousness about" : “Attitude to objectivity is the most characteristic feature of consciousness, which determines the specific difference between spiritual, mental phenomena as elements of consciousness. In perception, something is always perceived, in judgment, something is judged, and in hatred, something is hated.”

Husserl largely breaks with the traditional understanding of consciousness as a figurative representation of objects. With a phenomenological approach world of images disappears and only one remains world of intentional objects . Consciousness is always directed at an object, there is always consciousness about something, and not subjectivity closed in itself. Subject and object are inextricably linked with each other, correlative, do not exist without each other. Non-objective consciousness is impossible. Consciousness is always an awareness, an experience of an object, and an object is something that is revealed only in an act of consciousness that highlights and constructs its existence . Intentionality, according to Husserl, affirms the inseparability of the world and consciousness, in which the possibility of knowing the world opens up by penetrating into meaning, meaning, which express the richness of shades of reality and which are always already present before the act of cognition.

Intentionality demonstrates irreducibility of the world and consciousness to each other . The world retains its significance only as a phenomenon of consciousness, but consciousness itself is not pure thinking, thinking about itself, but is thinking about the world. Consciousness cannot be" thinking thinking ", closed, cut off from the life of the world. Consciousness is always "consciousness about something" different from himself. Consciousness is always outside itself, in the world . There cannot be any subject-object cognitive situation, since the world exists for us insofar as it appears in consciousness, and consciousness - insofar as it is consciousness about this world.

Husserl develops structure of the intentional act . Any such act contains two moment: 1) subject matter (" What "consciousness - noema, or thought of consciousness), not identical to the real object itself. This is the meaning of the subject "tree", for example, which cannot burn like a tree. 2) certainty of the act of consciousness ( noesis , or thinking). Noema and noesis differ both from the real object and from each other. But they are interconnected, do not exist without each other, they are correlative. Moreover, we need to talk not about individual acts of consciousness, but about "a series of acts of perception" following each other. Always the case mindflow . Further, according to Husserl, we can talk about various features the objective moment of consciousness, its acts, the differences in objects and in the ways of their being (noema). You can focus on consciousness itself, its changing forms, methods - on noesis. At the same time, it is necessary to distinguish modes of consciousness : perception, predicative statement, expectation, anticipation, fantasy, memory, desire, "retention in consciousness - after perception." One can explore the subject as the center of cognitive acts in their entirety. Consciousness reveals a split into the Self, knowledge and the knowable. Truth turns out to be the identity of the knowable and cognition as moments more cognitive than acts . I - pure ego - is an unchanging pole in relation to the constantly changing objective moments and certainties of acts of consciousness, noema and noesis. It is thanks to I - ego - chaotic experience is structured and takes on meaning.

Item is always given in consciousness in various, always one-sided manifestations, in disparate perceptions. Unity, the intentional object, is the intentional, ideal content of consciousness. Husserl says: "one and the same visible hexahedron is one and the same intentionally; what is given as spatially real is ideally identical, identical to intentions in diverse perceptions, immanent to modes of consciousness, I-acts; but not as a real given, but as objective meaning." The integrity of an object constitutes the potentiality of consciousness, or its horizon . These may be different horizons. Husserl notes: “Perception progressively unfolds and marks out the horizon of expectations as the horizon of intentionality, pointing to the future as perceived, thus to future series of perceptions.”

All phenomena of consciousness are intertwined and interconnected. A single act of consciousness turns out to be fundamentally impossible, because every perception, memory and judgment presupposes a huge potential layer of a priori synthesis - "horizon". Any objective given is always correlated with its potentiality, horizon, and semantic context. Every intentional act is an act of endowing objectivity with meaning. . Consciousness is initially in the world, constantly creating a semantic layer of pure synthesis. Transcendental subjectivity progressively develops more and more new horizons of objectivity. It expresses the idea of ​​Reason.

Husserl attempted to create new "first philosophy" - "egology" , which would answer the question: how does the act of seeing the general, the idea, the eidos, the meaning occur? The grasping of the general is not reducible to individual acts and intentions. Husserl here returns to Kant's apriority, a kind of "innateness". He's writing: “the ego has a colossal innate a priori and... all phenomenology, or the methodologically carried out pure self-understanding of the philosopher, is the disclosure of this innate a priori in its infinite diversity.” But this is not a repetition of the idea "innate ideas". This means, Husserl believes, that the field of possible meanings and possible experience is always an already existing property ego-monads . Moreover, the field of an infinite number of possible meanings is the ego itself.

The ego constantly carries out self-construction, which is the foundation of any other constitution. Transcendental I acts as the central link of all representations, remaining non-identical to the representations themselves. The concrete transcendental Self with its specific a priori constitutes the empirical-psychological Self mental life. Husserl notes: “in some way, the I-polarization also becomes multiple in the ego, thanks to its feelings as appearing in the ego as a lead to temporary co-presence, a reflection of other people’s monads with other people’s I-poles.”

Husserl introduces the concept intersubjectivity (Job " Carthusian Meditations ") to designate the transcendental community of monads. Thanks to this, according to Husserl, general validity of knowledge . Intersubjectivity is the basis of the community of subjects and their communication. Through intersubjectivity we can distinguish ourselves from the Other and also understand the Other.

At work" Crisis of European Sciences"Husserl talks about historicity and development human cognition, about rootedness" universal scientific reason "in the environment life world and about the semantic structure of this lifeworld. This is how the ideas of Husserl's late philosophy are expressed. He examines the problems of the relationship between philosophy and modern European science, as well as the relationship between science and everyday life. Husserl, in contrast to the positivists, believes that reason does not allow division "into theoretical, practical, aesthetic and any other" . The mind constitutes the deepest essence of man himself.

Husserl seeks to find out foundations of Western European rationality , which, in his opinion, would allow us to overcome the crisis of science, philosophy and humanity in general, which spread in Europe in 30 years XX century He's trying to reconstruct "genesis" of this crisis. He notes that the crisis has nothing to do with the development of natural sciences, physics, above all. But he discovers the strongest turn in the assessment of sciences , which “concerns not their scientific character, but what science in general has meant and can mean for human existence.” Science has forgotten about man . And this is due to the loss of faith in universal philosophy: “The crisis of philosophy means a crisis of all the sciences of modern times - at first hidden, but then with increasing force, the crisis of European humanity itself is revealed in all the total significance of its cultural life, in all its “existence.” Was destroyed “faith in the “absolute” reason from which the world receives its meaning, faith in the meaning of history, in the meaning of humanity, in its freedom - in the power and ability of man to give his individual and universal human existence a rational meaning.”

According to Husserl, new natural science - gravedigger of the mind . In modern times there has been a gap between "life self-awareness" man and a scientific explanation of man’s place in the world. Science began to overthrow philosophical foundations more and more. For modern natural science, according to Husserl, all meaning of what it investigates completely disappears. What is more terrible, however, is that such an attitude is also found in the sciences of the spirit, in the sciences that are designed to study the spiritual existence of man. Objectivist science loses all connection with a person, human life, its meaning and values. Husserl sees overcoming this in restoring the lost connection between science and the subject. Need new "science of spirit" , which Husserl calls the science of the "life world" . The life world is the semantic foundation of all human knowledge, including natural science knowledge.

Unlike the world of science, which is artificially created, constructed, idealized, the life world is not created artificially. To detect it, no special theoretical setting is needed. The life world is given directly, with complete clarity to every person. The life world is a pre-reflective given, which is the soil on which all sciences grow . Scientific knowledge depends on a more significant, higher method of pre-scientific, more precisely, extra-scientific consciousness, which is characterized by the presence of a certain "sums of evidence". Theoretical attitudes are not the opposite of the life world, but its varieties. Exactly the lifeworld determines the rationality of science .

The lifeworld is thoroughly and entirely subjective and relative. It is given to man in mode of practice , in the form of practical purposes. This is the life world of each individual person. If in the sciences we resort to explanation, then the life world is open to us directly - we understand it . It is simply given, it simply exists. But the life world has its own a priori structural characteristics, which lead to the formation of scientific abstractions, idealization, etc. These structures (space, temporality, causality, thingness, intersubjectivity) contain the possibility of any concrete historical experience of transcendental subjectivity.

Scheler

Max Scheler (1874 - 1928)- German philosopher and sociologist, one of the founders axiology , cultural sociology And sociology of knowledge , and philosophical anthropology . Defended his dissertation: " An attempt to establish relationships between logical and ethical principles "He is the author of works:" Crisis of values ", "About the eternal in man ", "The position of man in space ", "Forms of knowledge and society ", "The essence and forms of sympathy ", "Formalism in ethics and informal ethics of values ", "Transcendental and psychological method ", "Phenomenology and theory of knowledge ", etc.

Scheler comes to the conclusion that anthropological issues is the only possible subject of philosophy and the only possible "dot" modern way "philosophizing". Any act of human consciousness is intentional, directed towards objects, but these objects themselves can be like "practical" representing human corporeality, and "ideal" representing the semantic component of human existence. Human existence has, as it were, two horizon - empirical, or situational and supra-empirical, objective, in which a person confronts the world, is capable "become above" the world , above life, and where a person becomes involved in the Absolute - God. Scheler introduces the concept " material a priori ", which sets the basis phenomenological experience , immanent and directly grasping "the facts themselves" phenomena. Phenomenological experience opposes non-phenomenological experience , proceeding from the natural attitude, the natural constitution of the knowing subject. Non-phenomenological experience is not immanent experience; it is sign-symbolically mediated and "conjectural" deals not with phenomena, but with "conjectural".

One of the reasons "worldview inferiority" And "practicality" modern civilization lies in the hypostatization of the role of reason in culture and knowledge. Intelligence , according to Scheler, is value blind, values ​​are not logically expressible, they can only be felt. Scheler does not consider reason to be the principle that constitutes man.

Scheler is building four-level hierarchy of values , the highest level of which is occupied by sacred values . Other levels of values: hedonistic utility values; vital values; spiritual the values ​​of ethics and law, aesthetics and pure knowledge. The four levels of values ​​correspond to ideal personality types : Veselchaka; Technique (Doer) or Hero; Lawgiver, Artist and Sage (Metaphysics); Saint. Already here Scheler implies a fundamental difference types of cognition to the best of their ability "approximations" to Absolute Value. These are the following types: 1) emotional-active, 2) metaphysical-contemplative,
3) "saving"(coming from God). As higher kinds of knowledge Scheler calls science, metaphysics, religion (compare, in reverse order, with Comte's three stages).

Scientific knowledge in Scheler it is reduced to the level of purely technical-instrumental knowledge. Later, Scheler somewhat modifies the order of knowledge in favor of increasing the importance of philosophy as philosophical anthropology. This is due to the emergence of his idea of ​​the sociology of knowledge and a new version of cultural sociology.

Sociology Scheler understands it as philosophical sociology, as the opposition to positivist sociology. He believed that a turn to contemplative-speculative knowledge , without which no education is possible and without which culture "flattens out". The sociology of knowledge that he proposes should describe the mechanisms of sociocultural conditioning "defective worldview" and the nature of the limitations imposed by modern civilization; justify the need for the presence of all three of the above types of knowledge (scientific, metaphysical, religious) in "Fine" developing culture; finally, show the real mechanisms of dominance of one or another of these types of knowledge. So understood, the sociology of knowledge becomes inseparable from cultural sociology as a whole.

In the sociology of knowledge, Scheler focuses on identifying the so-called. "breakthrough" groups , involved in the change ethos . In relation to the history of European culture, the iconic figures, according to Scheler, are " Metaphysician " And " Actor ", through synthesis "unconnectable" giving rise to a new ethos" Researcher ". Scheler is convinced that the science that arose in modern times and the reformation of Christianity predetermined the impulses for culture "outside" but not "inward" which set the tendency for the subsequent destinies of Europe to "bilateral strangulation" metaphysics. This dominant turned me on European culture V "dead end", in a situation of loss of cultural meaning. The solution is to understand human nature. This necessarily entails the increasing role of philosophical anthropology.

Scheler claims that personality it is impossible, and there is no need, to cognize it, you can only approach it "come" And "understand" her in loving contemplation of essences. He believes that at the basis of all living things, including humans, lies an unconsciously animate basis - " sensual impulse " (later - " all my life "). The next level of the living form " instincts " And practical intelligence . Next comes the opposing " life"not derivable from it, but further determining it" spirit ", which constitutes "personality" based on the relationship of love as objectivity, as the ability to contemplate ancestral phenomena (absolute and eternal essences - values). Man as a personality , according to Scheler, open to the world . Unlike the animal, always telling the world " Yes "a person is able to speak" No ". Human - "ascetic life", "eternal Faust". Scheler's man is initially dual: he is always " in the world " And " behind the world ". In concept "Human" given simultaneously and "fame" And "secret", subject to constant decryption. IN deciphering a person's "secret" is the purpose of modern philosophy.

Talking about the relationship between religion and science , Scheler argues that science does not threaten religion. One religion, he says, can contrast with another religion, or with metaphysics, but not with science. The surrounding world must lose its sacred character in order for it to be studied scientifically. While nature was filled with Divine and demonic forces, there could be no talk of any scientific astronomy.

Hartmann

Nikolai Hartmann (1882 - 1950)- German philosopher. Born in Riga, studied at St. Petersburg University. Studied with Cohen and Natorp. Main works: " Plato's logic of existence ", "Main features of the metaphysics of knowledge ", "Aristotle and Hegel ", "The problem of spiritual existence. Research into the foundations of the philosophy of history and historical sciences ", "To the foundation of ontology ", "Structure real world. Essay on the Higher Doctrine of Categories ", "Philosophy of nature. Outline of the special doctrine of categories ", "Ethics ", "Aesthetics ", etc.

Influenced by Husserl's work, Hartmann criticized neo-Kantianism for its " methodologism", "subjectivism" And " constructivism".

Hartmann was critical of the construction of philosophical systems, but he himself consistently and methodically developed his own philosophy as a system. He is considered the last "system builder" in European philosophy of the 20th century. Justifying cognition as an ontological process , restoring rights to ontology as a whole, Hartmann defines the essence of his philosophy as realism . But it differs within the framework of realism by creating " critical ontology " (or "new ontology").

Initial position "critical ontology"- criticism of transcendentalism, which, according to Hartmann, overlooks the fact that knowledge is transcendental (beyond consciousness) Act . Thinking is dual-intentional - thinking a thought, it thereby thinks through it an object, which is something else, and therefore it is exactly what the thought is thought about. Thinking for the sake of thinking, Hartmann argues, is fruitless. Thought always takes place for the sake of something else—existence. Thought and thing are indistinguishable in content, but in the way of being they are fundamentally different from each other (a thought is in the spirit, a thing is always outside the spirit). Cognition - this is not design, but " setting "reality that already exists before and independently of the knower. Although the structure of reality largely coincides with the structure of cognition, there cannot be a complete coincidence. Cognition in every this moment time only increases the fullness and depth "grabbing" a reality that is never exhausted by it. At the same time, expanding its own boundaries, knowledge expands the boundaries of reality.

Being, according to Hartmann, has "layering" it is multi-stage. In being there is four "layer"(level): 1) inorganic (physical), 2) organic (biological), 3) spiritual (mental), 4) spiritual (ideal being). Higher "floors" beings arise on the basis of lower ones, the laws of which are present in them (“ law of return "): “The highest layer of being cannot exist without the lower, while the latter can.” Higher levels are not reducible to lower ones; they increase freedom in themselves as their attribution (“ law of the new "). Every "layer" being is autonomous and has its own internal determination (“ law of distance "). The increase in freedom from level to level does not cancel causal dependencies. Moreover, there is an increase in necessity (" law of determination ").

Hartmann puts it this way: "new ontology": in being it is necessary to distinguish between forms of existence and its categorical structures. Task " critical ontology" - give an analysis of the categories as fundamental definitions of being within each of the layers and reveal their interrelations and correlation. Cognition , therefore, is an existential relation - a relation between an existing object and also a real subject . In the process of cognition, the object remains the same, but the subject changes. The penetration of a subject into an object is always an increase in some "cognitive education" in a cognitive sense. At the same time, the object of knowledge acts in this regard as "more than an object"- he is not only what is known, but also unknown . The object is indifferent to knowledge and its currently possible boundaries; it is existential.

One world corresponds to many pictures of the world.

Hartmann's ontological approach treats cognitive attitude as existential, thereby allowing us to comprehend this relationship in its embeddedness in the interrelationships of life, in its differentiation according to "layers" being. If all categories of an object were simultaneously categories of knowledge, then there could be nothing unknowable. But we, Hartmann argues, discover insurmountable obstacles in all areas. boundaries of knowledge , some "excessive categories of being" which are not reflected in consciousness as its categories. The boundary of cognition is drawn in an object at the boundary of categorical identity. It has nothing to do with the cognition of categories.

Hartmann formulates program "differential categorical analysis. It divides categories into two kingdoms: 1) categories as principles of being and 2) categories like "Also" and principles of knowledge. Only in mathematics and logic , Hartmann notes, we can talk about the actual identity of the categories. When correlating the two kingdoms of categories, we, Hartmann believes, fall into inevitable antinomy . But consciousness can have knowledge. At the same time, on the one hand, consciousness must go beyond its limits, since it grasps something outside itself, since it is a cognizing consciousness. On the other hand, consciousness cannot go beyond its limits, since it can only grasp its contents, i.e. since it is again a cognizing consciousness. Since there is no identity of being and thinking, this contradiction is in principle insurmountable, Hartmann believes. At the same time, he notes that any categorical change concerns only cognitive, and not existential categories. The latter are unchangeable and invariant; they are the limiting values ​​to which knowledge strives and approaches.

"Grab "One can only do, says Hartmann, what is already available. Therefore, the conceptual "decor" categories are always secondary. Categories can exist without conceptual “design” . A real change in the categories of knowledge is structured in the general process of human adaptation to the surrounding world, which occurs in the background of any historical progress of knowledge, any change in mental forms and concepts, forming its essence. The process of cognition is part of the broader process of spiritual life in history , defined by a person's continuous orientation in the world as an aspect of adaptation. Adaptation is understood by Hartmann as a categorical change unfolding in the historical process of spiritual and cultural life. It's there process of categorical identity development : the apparatus of cognitive categories meaningfully adapts to the state of existential categories. The mechanism for implementing such a process should be sought in "fourth" spiritual "layer" being, in the interaction of personal and objective spirit. The objective spirit does not really exist apart from individuals; it is their universal impersonal form - the kingdom of values. The interaction of the personal spirit with the objective, their synthesis gives rise to an “objectified spirit”, represented in works of art, philosophy, religion, science, technology etc.

Constant transcendence expands the surrounding world and increases the adequacy of categorical identity. Ultimately, knowledge is, Hartmann believes, nothing other than participation in existence, "for-us-being" that which otherwise exists only in itself. In its appeal to being, knowledge is the conscious participation of spiritual being in itself, "being-for-itself." At the same time, Hartmann believes that meanings of knowledge - this is an axiological problem. However values ​​cannot be “captured” by a cognitive attitude alone . They open up in relationships "love-hate" and are a problem of ethics and aesthetics. The basis of the comprehension of values ​​lies, according to Hartmann, intuitive "sense of value" , emotional-transcendent acts of their immediate and direct "grabbing": these are perceptive acts (the subject’s experiences), prospective acts (the subject’s anticipations: hope, fear, anxiety), spontaneous acts (completely proactive: lust, desire, will). Hartmann is convinced that it is emotional-transcendental acts (as opposed to cognition) that clearly confirm the existence of reality as the real world.

The doctrine of phenomena

Phenomenology, if you delve into the decoding of this word, you can understand that phenomenology is the doctrine that deals with the study of phenomena. The doctrine of phenomena is a direction in the philosophy of the $XX$ century. Phenomenology defines its main task as an unpremised description of the experience of cognizing consciousnesses and the identification of essential features in it.

Note 1

Phenomenology begins with Edmund Husserl's thesis “Back to the things themselves!” This thesis was contrasted with the quotes common at that time: “Back to Kant!”, “Back to Hegel!” and meant the need to abandon the construction of a deductive system of philosophy, like Hegel’s. And it was also necessary to abandon the reduction of things and consciousnesses to the causal connection that is studied by science. Thus, phenomenology is defined by an appeal to primary experience; in Edmund Husserl it is addressed to the experiences of cognizing consciousnesses, where consciousness is presented not as an empirical subject of study of psychology, but as a “transcendental Self” and “pure meaning formation,” which can also be called intentionality.

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The identification of pure consciousness requires preliminary criticism of naturalism, psychologism and platonism and phenomenological reductions, according to which a person refuses statements regarding the realities of the material worlds when his existence is taken out of brackets.

History of phenomenology

The founder of this direction is Edmund Husserl ($1859 - 1938$ years). Franz Brentano and Karl Stumpf are considered to be the predecessors in this substantive movement. The starting point of phenomenological movements can be determined by Edmund Husserl’s book “Logical Investigations”, the main category of which is the concept of intentionality.

Highlights

The main points in the development of phenomenology are the emergence of its various interpretations and the opposition of its main options.

The teachings of Husserl and Heidegger, in turn, Heidegger is contradictory to the phenomenological concept. Through these teachings, concepts appear in the fields of phenomenological psychology and psychiatry, aesthetics, law and sociology. Thus, we will already be talking about the phenomenological sociology of A. Schutz, that is, about social constructivism. Also, it should be mentioned the concepts of philosophy of religion, ontology, where you can record such personalities as J.-P. Sartre, R. Ingarden and N. Hartmann. Other currents and scientific meaning-making concepts are also touched upon, such as the philosophy of mathematics and natural science, history and metaphysics according to Landgrebe, the theory of communications by Vilém Flusser, and Shpet’s hermeneutics. Influences on existentialism, personalism, hermeneutics and other philosophical movements, widespread in Europe, America, Japan and some other Asian countries.

Phenomenology centers

Large centers of phenomenology can be called:

1. the Husserl archives in Louvain, Belgium and Cologne, Germany;
2. International Institute for Advanced Phenomenological Research and Education in the USA, publishing the annual Analecta Husserliana and the journal Phenomenology Inquiry.

Problems of phenomenology

Edmund Husserl defines the goal of building a universal science in order to study universal philosophy and universal ontology in its entirety. It should also be mentioned about the relationship to the “comprehensive unity of existence,” which can have an absolute, strict justification and serves as a justification for all other sciences, and knowledge in general. Phenomenology should have such content in science.

Note 2

Phenomenology considers and contributes to bringing into the system a priori consciousness, which can be reduced to the “last essential necessities”, thereby defining the main concepts of scientific research. The task of phenomenology can be traced “in the knowledge of the complete system of formations of consciousness that constitute,” that is, immanently through the objective world.

Phenomenology is one of the most profound and influential thought movements of the twentieth century. The founder of phenomenology is the German philosopher Edmund Husserl; such major thinkers as M. Scheler, M. Heidegger, N. Hartmann, G.G. are most directly related to it. Shpet, M.K. Mamardashvili. Phenomenology is characterized by a number of seemingly difficult to connect features: an almost banal idea to finally turn to the essence of things, discarding the superficial opinion about them, an idea that is somewhat akin to Eastern meditative techniques, the goal of which is also immersion in the world of pure essences; a purely European noble desire to follow strictly established criteria of accuracy and the associated desire to turn philosophy into science, with a latent and obvious criticism of positivism.

So, the basis for the emergence of phenomenology is, on the one hand, criticism of positivism with its almost religious faith in science, and on the other hand, distrust of idealistic speculation, which also implied the acceptance of some fundamental provisions on faith. All this contributed to the formation of a gravitation towards the concrete, towards the immediate data of contemplation. The motto of phenomenology is back to things! It is necessary to return to things, discarding “structures suspended in the air and random finds, superficially posed problems passed on from generation to generation as true problems” (M. Heidegger), it is necessary to discard the verbal accumulations that hide the true essence of things. To the foundation philosophical knowledge only “stable evidence” can be posited. To do this, it is necessary to look for something so self-certifying that it cannot be denied (which, we note, was already what Descartes was striving for). This phenomenological plan must be realized through the description of “phenomena” that appear to our consciousness after the complex procedure of implementing the “epoch,” that is, after bracketing our philosophical as well as everyday views and beliefs that impose this or that vision of the world on us. It is necessary to see the totality of essences from which the world is built, and this is accessible only to carefully prepared, purified contemplation.

In phenomenology, two branches can be distinguished: idealistic and realistic. The first is represented by Husserl, who, returning to things, ultimately found the only reality - consciousness. Realistic phenomenology is represented by M. Scheler, who “stopped” at the stage of recognizing the objectivity of hierarchically ordered things given by intuition. Let us briefly consider the two named branches.

Phenomenology, according to Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), should be the science of essences, which, as you can see, contradicts its name. Essence in phenomenology is considered as a description of a phenomenon that appears to consciousness when we are abstracted from its empirical, that is, external, changeable, unstable aspects. Entities are invariant, that is, they are invariably characteristic of a certain set of homogeneous things. To reveal the essence, you need to take an example of a concept and change it, i.e. vary its characteristics until invariant properties that remain unchanged are discovered. Entities, according to Husserl, are found not only in the sensory world, but also in the world of our hopes, desires, and memories. The spheres of existence of entities are nature, society, morality, religion, and their study, Husserl believes, must necessarily be preceded by an analysis of the entities that shape natural, social, moral and religious phenomena.

The fundamental concepts of phenomenology, which studies how phenomena appear to consciousness, are intention and intentionality, which mean approximately the same thing. These concepts denote the focus of consciousness on something. Consciousness is always consciousness about something. It is something that I think about, remember, dream about, something that I feel. Husserl draws attention to the fact that an object is not the perception of an object. For a phenomenologist, it is perceptions, appearances, phenomena that are important. The subject of his study thus becomes the intentionality of consciousness, that is, not the objects themselves, but the consciousness’s appeal to them, its focus on them and the products of this focus-direction.

Another important concept-principle of phenomenology is “epoch” (Greek: abstention from judgment), which should form the foundation for a new, scientific philosophy. This principle works as follows. A person’s natural worldview is woven from various beliefs that are necessary for simply “dwelling” in the world. The first of these beliefs is that we are surrounded by a world of real things. However, in the ultimate sense, the fact of the existence of the world outside consciousness is far from certain, and mere conviction is not enough to justify it. Philosophy needs stronger foundations. Applying the method of epoche, that is, abstaining from judgments about what is not given with absolute certainty, the phenomenologist moves along the steps of the so-called phenomenological reduction, making his way to the absolutely certain. The result of this movement, reminiscent of following the paths of Cartesian radical doubt, is similar to that obtained by Descartes, except that it is more subtle and less unambiguous. The only thing that manages to withstand the pressure of the era, Husserl believes, is consciousness, subjectivity. Consciousness is not just the most obvious reality, but also the absolute reality, the basis of all reality. The world, the philosopher emphasizes, is “constituted” by consciousness, that is, “presented” by consciousness to itself. However, the question remains open: if consciousness gives meaning to the world, then does it create the sought-after meaning or reveal it as given?

It is clear that consciousness in this case is identical to the I, ego. Husserl says: “It is the I who realizes the epoch, this I who interrogates the world as a phenomenon, that world that is significant for me as well as for others who accept it in all its certainty. Consequently, I rise above every natural being that reveals itself to me. I am the subjective flight of transcendental life... And I, in the fullness of my concreteness, absorb all this into myself.” It can be noted that here Husserl comes as close as possible to the idealistic speculations of a subjectivist kind, which he rejected and from which he initially started.

In his last, very important work, “The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology,” Husserl reveals the dangerous deviation in philosophy that it takes after Galileo and Descartes, when the physical and mathematical dimension isolated from the world becomes the main one and replaces the world in its entirety. This entails an unsafe tendency for man to gain complete scientific and technological domination over the world. Phenomenology is salutary in this situation precisely because it leads to the purposeful methodological removal of historical layers over the true essence of things.

As already noted, Husserlian phenomenology ultimately negates some of the merits of the original intention. This determines its openness to further interpretations and attempts at implementation in a slightly different way. In this regard, the work of the German thinker Max Scheler (1857-1828) deserves attention.

Scheler transfers the phenomenological method into the sphere of ethics, philosophy of culture and religion. The “formal reason” for becoming philosophical concept Scheler is a fundamental disagreement with Kant's ethical system, which is based on the concept of duty. Moral imperative Kant, which can be formulated “You must because you must,” seems to Scheler to be arbitrary and unfounded. Scheler finds a different basis for ethics: not duty, but value. The concept of value in Scheler acquires a broad ontological meaning and is partly identified with the concept of essence - the main thing sought by phenomenology.

A person, according to Scheler, is surrounded on all sides by values ​​that should not be invented, but discovered as a result of a person’s emotional and intuitive activity. Values ​​are both a priori and material, they are accessible to perception, which places them in a hierarchical order:

Sensual (joy-punishment)

Civil (useful-harmful)

Life (noble-vulgar)

Cultural

a) aesthetic (beautiful-ugly)

b) ethical (righteous-unrighteous)

c) speculative (true-false)

Religious (sacred-secular).

The idea of ​​God is considered by Scheler as the highest value, and love of God is considered the highest form of love and a fundamental phenomenal act. The experience of values ​​is not a mental, but a cosmic act.

Scheler, like Husserl, considers philosophy the highest, broadest science of essence. It can be noted that Scheler’s realistic phenomenology also reveals semi-mystical moods, which, apparently, is the fatal inevitability of any powerful mental movement. Let us add that Scheler is the founder of philosophical anthropology and the sociology of knowledge - two very significant and fruitful philosophical and sociological directions of the twentieth century.

Phenomenology is one of the most influential philosophical movements of the 20th century. The founder of phenomenology is the German philosophical idealist, mathematician Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), who sought to transform philosophy into a “rigorous science” through the phenomenological method. His students Max Scheler, Gerhard Husserl, Martin Heidegger, Roman Ingarden introduced phenomenological principles into ethics, sociology, jurisprudence, psychology, aesthetics, literary criticism. Phenomenology is close to existentialism, which, having become the most influential movement in Western European culture after the Second World War, was based to the same extent on Husserl’s phenomenology as on the philosophy of S. Kierkegaard. According to Husserl's definition, phenomenology refers to a descriptive philosophical method that, at the end of the last century, established an a priori psychological discipline that was capable of creating the basis for the construction of all empirical psychology. In addition, he considered phenomenology to be a universal philosophy, on the basis of which a methodological revision of all sciences can be carried out. Husserl believed that his method was the key to understanding the essence of things. He did not divide the world into appearance and essence. Analyzing consciousness, he examined subjective cognition and its object at the same time. The object is the activity of consciousness itself; the form of this activity is an intentional act, intentionality. Intentionality—the constitution of an object by consciousness—is a key concept in phenomenology. The first attempt to apply phenomenology to the philosophy of art and literary criticism was made by V. Conrad in 1908. Conrad considered the subject of phenomenological research to be the “aesthetic object” and distinguished it from objects of the physical world.

The next important step in the history of phenomenology is the activity of the Polish scientist Ingarden. As an object of study, Ingarden chose fiction, the intentional character of which he considered obvious, trying to show that the structure of a literary work is both its mode of existence and its essence. The existentialist version of the phenomenological approach to literature is characterized by a shift in emphasis from “transcendental subjectivity” to “human existence.” Phenomenology in its Husserlian version sought to be a science. Existentialists, and above all M. Heidegger, often replaced the tradition of logical methodological research with intuitive calculations. Heidegger's book Being and Time (1927) had a significant influence on French existentialism. If Husserl’s phenomenological reduction led him to pure consciousness, the essence of which was the constitutive act, intentionality, then Heidegger turned pure consciousness into a type of existential “primitive consciousness.” E. Steiger most fully used the phenomenological-existential orientation in the study of literary creativity in the book “Time as the Poet’s Imagination” (1939). W. Kaiser's monograph “A Work of Verbal Art” (1938) continued literary research in this direction. J. Pfeiffer, a popularizer of the works of Heidegger, Jaspers and M. Geiger, in his 1931 dissertation defined the phenomenological semantic method of research. The main principle of the phenomenological-existentialist approach to literature is the consideration work of art as a self-contained and “perfect” expression by a person of his ideas. According to this concept, a work of art fulfills its purpose by the very fact of its existence; it reveals the foundations of human existence. It is indicated that a work of art should not and cannot have a purpose other than ontological and aesthetic. A distinctive feature of French philosophers of art is that they adhere to a more scientifically rigorous methodology and are much more rational in their approach to a work of art (M. Dufrenne, J.P. Sartre, M. Merleau-Ponty).

The methodological principles of phenomenological analysis of a literary work are based on the statement that phenomenology is a descriptive scientific method that considers a phenomenon out of context, based on itself. Complex phenomena are dissected into individual components, levels, layers, thereby revealing the structure of the phenomenon. Phenomenological description and disclosure of the structure constitute the first methodological step in the study of a literary work. Descriptive and structural analysis lead phenomenologists to an ontological study of a phenomenon. The application of ontology to literary studies constitutes the second most important aspect of the phenomenological approach to literature. The third significant issue of the phenomenological approach is related to identifying the relationship of a work of art to reality, i.e. identifying the role of causality in the phenomenological concept of a work of art.

Phenomenological method

The method of identifying layers in a phenomenological description was first used by Husserl, who built a “model” of the layer-by-layer structure of an object perceived by consciousness, the essence of which is that its layers, each individually representing an independent unit, together create an integral structure. Ingarden applied this principle to a literary work. It was phenomenologists who were the first to approach the study of the structure of a work of art, i.e. applied the methodology later used by structuralism. Some Eastern European scientists (Z. Konstantinovich, G. Vaida) believe phenomenological method of research by the German equivalent of Russian formalism(see Formal School) and the Anglo-American New Criticism. Most wide use received the idea that the phenomenological method considers a work of art as a single whole. Everything that can be found out about a work is contained in it itself; it carries its own independent value, has an autonomous existence and is built according to its own laws. The existentialist version of the phenomenological method, based on the same principles, differs only in that it highlights the internal experience of the work of the interpreter of the work, emphasizes its “parallel flow” with the work, its creative abilities necessary for analyzing a work of art. The phenomenological method considers the work outside the process of reality, disconnects it from the sphere of reality and “puts in brackets” not only the reality that exists outside consciousness, but also the subjective psychological reality of the artist’s consciousness in order to approach “pure” (transcendental) consciousness and pure phenomenon (essence) ).

In the United States, since the early 1970s, there has been a gradual but clearly noticeable change in orientation from the neopositivist model of cognition to phenomenological. The appeal to phenomenological methodology, which postulates the inseparability of subject and object in the act of cognition, was explained by the desire to offer something new in comparison with the traditional methods of “new criticism.” Consideration of a work of art as an object that exists independently of its creator and the subject who perceives it, under the influence of the revision of subject-object relations in philosophy, was replaced by the development of a set of problems associated with the “author-work-reader” relationship. The varieties of receptive aesthetics, European in origin, which deals with the analysis of the “work-reader” relationship, and the Geneva school, which identifies the “author-work” relationship, are becoming newly relevant for American criticism. In the USA, within the framework of phenomenological methodology, there are three schools: receptive criticism, or the school of reader response; criticism of consciousness; Buffalo School of Critics. The subject of research in these literary critical schools is the phenomena of consciousness.

There are, however, significant differences between these schools, primarily in terms of the basic concept - the “reader-text” relationship. Critics of consciousness view the text as the embodiment of the author's consciousness, which is mystically shared by the receptive reader. Critics of the Buffalo School argue that the reader unconsciously shapes and determines the text in accordance with his personality. Receptionists view the text as a kind of “controller” of the reader’s response process. The unprincipled nature of the discrepancies is removed by the conviction that any characteristics of the work should be derived from the activity of the cognizing subject. All varieties of phenomenological criticism emphasize the active role of the reader as a subject of aesthetic perception.

The word phenomenology comes from English phenomenology, German Phanomenologie, French phenomenologie.