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SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY

Social communities and connections within and between these communities. Classes Ethnic groups Professional groups: miners, teachers.. Socio-demographic groups (youth, pensioners, schoolchildren, unemployed, nursing mothers, visiting fathers) Social-territorial communities (city, village, village, district, region, region)

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Theories of classes: Marx K. (economic determinism) - society is divided into 2 antagonistic classes - those who have ownership of the means of production (C) and those who do not have this property. A. Smith and Ricardo (distributive theory of classes) - capitalists - receive profit, landowners - rent, workers - wages.

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3. M. Weber - the source of class differences - professional skill, specialty, qualifications, possession of intellectual property. 4. The reason for the emergence of classes is violence, robbery 5. Rostow U. - instead of classes - division by profession (technological determinism)

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Social mobility and social stratification

Stratification means a system of signs and criteria of social stratification, inequality in society (against the theory of classes by K. Marx). Classes, social strata and groups are distinguished according to the following characteristics: - education - psychology - living conditions - employment - income - profession Strat can be from 2 to 9.

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P. Sorokin

Introduced the concept of social mobility - any transition of an individual from one social position to another. Horizontal social mobility - from one group to another (from Orthodoxy to Catholicism), from one family to another, moving to another enterprise, etc. Vertical social mobility - moving to another social layer, up and down, social elevator.

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CIVIL SOCIETY

HEGEL: civil society is the unification of members of society as independent subjects of the community based on their needs and through the legal structure as a means of ensuring the security of persons and property. The main principles of civil society are ensuring life, well-being, and personal dignity; Every person is an end in itself and the highest value.

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1. Family, cooperation, association, public organizations, partnerships, creative, economic, sports, ethnic, religious, dacha, artistic, housing cooperatives - the sphere of self-government of people and their associations 2. Industrial and private life of people, their customs, traditions, mores. Civil society and the state - the relationship between individual freedom and public power.

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STATE

1. A political institution arose at a certain stage of development of society, when economic development led to the stratification of society into antagonistic classes. 2. The institution of public power, the will and interest of the dominant class in the economy, elevated to law, to legal norms.

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3. The political institution of class society protects its economic and social structure. 4. Arose as a result of the division of labor, the emergence of private property, and the split of society into antagonistic classes. 5. The apparatus of violence, an element of the superstructure.

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MAIN FEATURES OF THE STATE

1.Territory 2. System of bodies and institutions performing the functions of state power. 3. Public power – separated from the people, based on armed force. Officials are a separate profession. 3. Implementation of foreign and domestic policies. 4. Availability of law, a system of norms binding on all members of society 5. Collection of taxes and fees, issue of money, bonds, government loans

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TYPES OF STATES

1. By type of socio-economic formation (SEF) – slaveholding, feudal, bourgeois. 2.By types of government and structure of state power institutions - monarchical, republican, constitutional monarchy, presidential, parliamentary.

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3. By type of government: Unitary, federal (USSR, Russian Federation, USA, France, Germany) confederation (EEC). 4. By type of political REGIMES of government: - totalitarian (dictate of one ideology, repression of dissent) - authoritarian (rigid centralism, ideological demagoguery, no rights of citizens, the court is deprived of independence, elections are fictitious) - democratic (rule of law, elections, equality of citizens) .

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A MODERN VIEW AT THE STATE

1. A form of social coexistence of all citizens of society, a guarantor and exponent of their sovereign rights, responsibilities, and freedoms. 2. The political sphere, where communication is carried out with all social structures - the relationship of peoples, nations, ethnic groups, races, regional communities (communities) 3. Expresses the interests of the entire society, because this allows both society and the state to function optimally.

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A modern view of the STATE

5. Strives to become legal and democratic. The division of power into judicial, executive, and legislative becomes a universal human value. 6. Tends, as a tendency, to bridge the gap between morality, ethics and politics. 7. Guarantees a person’s freedom to do everything that is not prohibited by law.

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FUNCTIONS OF THE STATE

External: defense, international politics. Internal: - protection of economic and social systems - regulation of economic life - protection of public order - regulation of social relations - cultural, educational, ideological work (formulation of the national idea)

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Socio-economic formation

Socio-economic formation (SEF) is a socio-economic phenomenon. Accounting for vertical connections in the development of social organisms. 5 OEF: primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist, communist. They differ in PRODUCTION METHOD.

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ERA

Epoch – (“stop”) – a period of time in the development of nature, society, science, etc., which has characteristic features (the era of Pushkin, the era of classicism, the Neolithic era, the era of revolutions). A way of life is a certain type of social production. The socio-economic system of a particular society may include several structures. Multi-structured economy: private capitalist, patriarchal, small-scale commodity, state, public, etc.

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CIVILIZATION

Civilization is a sociocultural phenomenon (Danilevsky N.E., Spengler O., Toynbee A.). Nonlinearity, cyclical development of society. Each civilization is original, unique, inimitable; there are no general patterns and continuity between civilizations. Accounting for horizontal connections between social organisms.

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Huntington "The Clash of Civilizations and the Transformation of World Order"

1. Civilizations are large conglomerates of countries that have some common defining characteristics (culture, language, religion, etc.). 2. Civilizations have existed, as a rule, for more than a millennium; 3. After the emergence of the earliest civilizations, for almost three millennia there was no contact between them, or these contacts were very rare and limited;

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Huntington

4. Every civilization sees itself as the most important center of the world. 5.Western civilization arose in the 8th-9th centuries AD. It reached its zenith at the beginning of the 20th century. Western civilization has had a decisive influence on all other civilizations; 6. The perception of Western influence (Westernization) and technological progress (modernization) can occur separately or coincide.

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7.Religious fanaticism is often a reaction of the average person to modernization and Westernization. 8. Some civilizations (Western, Hindu, Sin, Orthodox, Japanese and Buddhist) have their own “core” countries, that is, main countries, while other civilizations (Islamic, Latin American and African) do not have core countries.

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HuntingtonList of civilizations

1. Western civilization 2. Islamic civilization 3. Hindu civilization 4. Xing civilization 5. Japanese civilization 6. Latin American civilization 7. Orthodox civilization 8. Buddhist civilization 9. African civilization

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MODERN CONCEPTS OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Within the framework of stage-by-progressive development: Traditional society Industrial society Post-industrial society - (Information society) This is TECHNOLOGICAL DETERMINISM (dependence on the level of development of technology and technology)

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Technological determinism Rostow W.W. (1916-2003)

Special Advisor to J. Kennedy and L. Johnson. Theory of post-industrial society. “Stages of economic growth. Neo-communist manifesto" (1960). 1. The idea of ​​bringing backward countries up to the level of developed ones (accelerating their passage through the stages of economic growth). 2. America must prevent the spread of communist ideas, even the use of force. 3. Rostow’s 3 concepts: stages of economic growth; phases of transition to democracy; price theory of long waves of market conditions.

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Rostow W.W.

The criteria for identifying development phases are technological innovations, the rate of economic growth, changes in the structure of production. 5 stages of development of society (according to the level of technology): 1. Traditional society - manual technology, hierarchy of social structure (until the end of feudalism). 2. Transitional society - (preparing for take-off) - centralized state, enterprising people (pre-monopoly capitalism) 3. "Take-off" - industrial revolution, capital accumulation (from 5 to 10% of national income from investment (monopoly capitalism).

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ROSTOW W.U.

4. “Maturity” - level of investment up to 20% of national income. Science, technology, cities - 60-90% of the population, growing share of skilled labor (industrial society) 5. The era of “high mass consumption” - the main sectors of the economy are the service sector, consumer goods, the middle class, the state provides a high standard of living (post-industrial society) 6. “Search for quality of life” - added later - spiritual development of a person (informational)

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Professional division of labor, not class. The development of society is characterized not by forms of ownership, but by the level of development of industry, technology, economy, science, and the share of capital accumulation in national income. Economic changes are the consequences of non-economic human impulses and aspirations. Within the framework of capitalism, introduce: planning, centralism, pluralism of capitalist corporations. Conclusion Rostow W.W. : capitalism is eternal, communism is a disease.

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Toffler E.

“Future shock” “Third wave” - post-industrial, information society - environmental friendliness, renewable sources, smart technologies, production for yourself, many corporations, diversity of family types, industrialization of education, destandardization and individualization.

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Fukuyama

“The end of history and the last man” “The future of history” - the spread of liberal democracy - the end point of the socio-cultural evolution of humanity. Consumption dead ends. Posthuman society. Democratic waves. Reliance on the middle class.

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It is necessary to moderate the ardor of struggle in a person. In general there is pessimism, but there is no alternative to democracy. Everyone is driven by the THIRST FOR RECOGNITION. For cultural identity while preserving liberal democracy.

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Presentation on the topic: Social philosophy. Society

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1. The concept of society The Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language gives six different meanings of it. Society is a collection of people united by historically determined social forms of joint life and activity (“feudal society”). Or a circle of people united by a common position, origin, interests (“noble society”). A voluntary, permanent association of people for some purpose (“philatelist society”). This or that environment of people, company (“get into bad company”).

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SOCIAL REALITY Society is not just a collection of people, but also a real, objectively existing collection of conditions for their life together. Social reality (Emile Durkheim) differs from natural reality and is not reducible to the latter. But it is as “real” as nature, although it has its own specifics. This is a “suprabiological” and “supraindividual” reality, which is primary in relation to the biopsychic reality embodied in human individuals. After all, a person, with his biological and mental organization, can only exist in the conditions of social life.

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SCOPE OF THE CONCEPT “SOCIETY” Firstly, society can be understood as social organisms of different scales: A separate society that takes place in a certain territory during a certain historical time (ancient Greek society, modern Russian society, etc.). Regional unification of several separate societies (sociocultural world). For example, Western European society, the Muslim world. Human society is a set of all individual societies, considered as a single historically developing whole.

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MEANINGS OF THE CONCEPT “SOCIETY” Secondly, the concept “society” takes on different meanings depending on the level of abstraction at which society is considered: At the first level, the concept of society reflects a specific historically formed social organism - a separate society, a sociocultural world, human society as a whole. At a higher level of abstraction, this concept means a certain type of society: primitive society, industrial society, etc.

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“SOCIETY IN GENERAL” Finally, at the highest level we mean “society in general.” It is constructed by abstracting from the specific features by which various social organisms differ from each other, and captures only those features and characteristics that are inherent in any type of society. In other words, this concept reflects the properties of social reality in general.

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2.Structure (structure) of society. Subsystems or social structures of society include various kinds of social communities, groups, organizations, such as family, ethnicity, nation, classes, etc. Here, attention is drawn to questions regarding their nature, their interrelation, their social functions, their place and role in the development of society, these issues will be discussed later.

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THREE MAIN SPHERES OF SOCIAL LIFE: firstly, productive, utilitarian activity related to the satisfaction of vital needs; secondly, organizational and managerial activities designed to ensure the consistency of collective actions and public order; thirdly, information activity, consisting of the accumulation, preservation and transmission of knowledge, values ​​and norms of behavior.

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3. Specifics of social reality Social life is the entire set of conditions of social life that appear to members of society as supra-individual, objectively given circumstances of their existence. Social reality consists of phenomena that Durkheim calls social facts. This is a special type of phenomena that takes place only in society, only in the life of people together. They contain some kind of spirituality emanating from people, which is not found in physical, chemical, biological facts.

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4.Composition of social reality Let us highlight some of the most important components of social reality. The people themselves, their associations, relationships, actions are the main component of social reality, its creative force. A person in whom the material and spiritual, body and soul are united, spreads this “duality” around him. And this “two-layer” - material and spiritual - content of social reality in the human world.

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LANGUAGE The most obvious way man's ability to endow his creations with meaning is manifested in language. Communicating using language, people attribute meanings to the sounds of oral speech (or letters of written speech) that they physically - like air vibrations (or some kind of squiggles) - do not possess on their own.

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ARTIFACTS The world of material artifacts. Artifacts (from the Latin arte - artificial and faktuz - made) in the broadest sense of the word are any artificially created object, in contrast to objects that arose naturally in nature. Artifacts include things made by people’s hands, thoughts born in their heads, means and methods of action they found, forms of living together, etc.

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NATURAL PHENOMENA involved in the sphere of social activity. By mastering nature, people perceive meaning - value, benefit, etc. – also in its naturally occurring phenomena. So, for example, oil, which once had nothing to do with social reality, entered it and turned into the social wealth of the country.

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COLLECTIVE REPRESENTATIONS Each person develops his own individual picture of the world around him. But at the same time, there are also general views, ideas, and mental attitudes that circulate in society and are more or less shared by its members. E. Durkheim called them “collective representations.” They exist in people's heads, but do not depend on the personal nature of individuals.

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5. Civil society and the state. The state occupies a special place among all social organizations. Confucius likened the state to a large family and believed that the support of state power was morality, love and respect of younger people for elders. This was opposed by the school of fajia (“legalists”), which argued that state policy is incompatible with morality and power should be built not on moral principles and conscience, but on the law and fear of punishment.

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BASIC FEATURES OF THE STATE: 1. Public power - a system of state bodies and institutions, a special apparatus of management (parliament, government, ministries, etc.) and coercion (“power” bodies: army, police, etc.). 2. A system of legal norms, legal laws that regulate social relations (in contrast to customs and traditions operating in the primitive system, legal laws are established by the state and implemented thanks to its force).

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BASIC FEATURES OF THE STATE: 3. Territorial division of the population (in contrast to the division of the population according to consanguinity in the tribal system, the state unites with its power and protects all people inhabiting its territory, regardless of belonging to any clan or tribe). 4. A system of taxes that provide funds for the maintenance of the state apparatus, as well as organizations and people supported by the state (in the field of education, health care, social security), and for the implementation of functions that the state must perform.

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MAIN FUNCTIONS OF THE STATE: 1. Protecting law and order - ensuring compliance with the rule of law by all persons of the state, combating crime, protecting the rights and freedoms of citizens. 2. Economic – regulation of the country’s economic life through a system of taxation, price regulation, support for priority sectors of the economy, etc.

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MAIN FUNCTIONS OF THE STATE: 3. Social – protection of the disabled and poor population, creation of conditions for the development of healthcare, education, public transport, etc. 4. Cultural – ensuring the activities of institutions of science, art, religion, media, etc. In modern conditions, the 5. environmental function of the state is becoming increasingly important.

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EXTERNAL FUNCTIONS OF THE STATE: 1. Defense of the country or military expansion in relation to other countries. 2. Foreign policy activity – pursuing the interests of the state in international relations with other states. 3. Foreign economic activity – trade, industrial and financial contacts with other states. Among external functions in the modern world, 4. international cooperation in the field of social, humanitarian, cultural, technical, scientific interaction and exchange occupies an important place.

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FORMS OF STATE Nowadays, states are usually distinguished by forms of government, government structure and political regime. Based on their forms of government, states are divided into monarchies and republics. Signs of a monarchy: power is inherited; power belongs to the ruler (monarch) indefinitely. There are unlimited and limited monarchies. Signs of a republic: elected government; election for a specified period. Republics are divided into presidential, parliamentary and mixed. Dictatorship is considered a special form.

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THE MOST IMPORTANT PRINCIPLES OF A DEMOCRATIC STATE: 4. The social nature of the state - its policy is aimed at creating conditions that ensure a decent life and free development of people. 5. Recognition and protection equally of private, state, municipal and other forms of property. 6. Separation of executive, legislative and judicial powers.

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IMPORTANT PRINCIPLES OF A DEMOCRATIC STATE: 7. Ideological diversity - no ideology can be established as a state or mandatory one. 8.Political diversity – public associations and parties are equal before the law. 9. Compliance of domestic legislation with the principles and norms of international law.

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CIVIL SOCIETY One of the phenomena of modern democracy is civil society. Civil society is the sphere of self-expression of free citizens and voluntarily formed associations and organizations, independent of direct interference and arbitrary regulation by government authorities. The formation of its concept dates back to the second half of the 18th – early 19th centuries. The philosophy of the Enlightenment, German classical philosophy, in the works of whose representatives the need for a clear distinction between the state and civil society began to be realized, gave priority to the state (especially Hegel).

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MAIN FUNCTIONS OF CIVIL SOCIETY: 1. Full satisfaction of the material and spiritual needs of people; 2. Protection of private areas of people's lives; 3. A lever to restrain political power from absolute domination; 4. Stabilization of social relations and processes.

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6. Development of society Speaking about the development of society, let us ask ourselves the question: are there laws in human history that determine the behavior of social systems and subsystems - ethnic groups, classes, states and humanity as a whole? Or are historical phenomena unique and inimitable, and, therefore, as S. Frank wrote, there is no place for regularity here?

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GLOBALIZATION The process of forming a fundamentally new type of social reality is now unfolding. This process occurs simultaneously in two main directions: 1. the formation of a new type of society in the most developed countries; 2. the formation of a global social organism covering the entire world (globalization).

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“POST-INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY” The new type of society that replaces the industrial one is called differently: “post-industrial society” (J. Bell, J. Galreith); “super-industrial civilization” (O. Toffler); “information society” (M. McLuhan, E. Masuda); “technotronic society” (Z. Brzezinski). Post-industrial society is a product of the scientific and technological revolution of the 20th and 21st centuries.

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Literature: Aristotle. Policy. Op.6 in 4 volumes. Vol.4. – M.: Mysl, 1983. Aron R. Democracy and totalitarianism. – M., 1993. P.23. Bransky V.P. Social synergetics as a postmodern philosophy of history / Social sciences and modernity. 1999, No. 6. Volkov A.I. The human dimension of progress. – M.: Politizdat, 1990. A.S. Carmin, G.G. Bernatsky. Philosophy. - St. Petersburg: DNA Publishing House. 2001. Ch. 7. Social philosophy. Marx K. Letter to P.V. Annenkov, December 28. 1846 // Marx K. Engels F. Works, vol. 27. Momdzhyan K.H. Introduction to social philosophy. – M., 1997. P.303-304. New technocratic wave in the West. – M., 1986.

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LITERATURE: F.A. Hayek. The road to slavery // Questions of philosophy, 1990. No. 10, 11, !2. Popper K. Open Society and Its Enemies. T.1. – M., 1992. P.220. Ozhegov S.I. and Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. – M., 1992. P.24. Article "society". Plato. State/Plato. Dialogues. – M.: LLC “AST Publishing House”; Kharkov: “Folio”, 2003. P.86-98.

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LITERATURE: Sorokin P.A. Sociological theories of modern times. – M., 1992. P.24. Thomas Jefferson on Democracy / Compiled by: Saul K. Padover. - St. Petersburg: Lenizdat, 1992. Jose Ortega y Gasset. Revolt of the masses // Questions of Philosophy, 1989, No. 3, 4. Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary. – M., 1983: articles “state”, “society”. Engels F. Origin of the family, private property and the state // Marx K., Engels F. Works, vol. 21.

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The emergence of philosophy and its place in spiritual life. Philosophy as a form of social consciousness “Perhaps other sciences are more necessary, but there is no better science.” Aristotle on philosophy Philosophy translated from ancient Greek (fileo - to love, sofia - wisdom) - “love of wisdom” It is believed that the word “philosopher” was used for the first time used by the Greek mathematician and thinker Pythagoras, referring to people striving for knowledge and the right way of life. Subsequently, the interpretation and consolidation of the term “philosophy” in European culture comes from Plato, who, in turn, referred to the fact that the term “philosophy” was introduced by Socrates, for whom philosophy represented the study of oneself. Socrates lived at a time when the so-called sophists were active - sages, intelligent people who taught everyone various kinds of sciences. Socrates argued that God alone is the true sophist, the sage. A person cannot be a sage, he can only be a lover of wisdom, a philosopher. Thus, Socrates opposed himself to the Sophists, and in this opposition the terms “philosophy” and “philosopher” first appeared. In this sense, this term is also used by Plato, who argued that philosophy is the doctrine of the eternally existing and unchangeable, i.e. the science of ideas. Socrates

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Aristotle further contributed to the establishment of the term “philosophy”. According to Aristotle, philosophy is a science that studies everything that exists as such, the first principle of everything that exists. Beginning with Aristotle, the term “philosophy” was firmly established in the ancient Greek language. The birth and formation of philosophical knowledge, philosophy as a science, is inseparable from worldview. Worldview is a person’s need to understand the world; a set (system) of views on the world as a whole and a person’s attitude towards this world. The main forms of worldview: mythological; religious; artistic; naturalistic; ordinary (everyday); philosophical.

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The special place and role of the philosophical worldview lies in the fact that it belongs to the scientific sphere of social consciousness and has a specific categorical apparatus, based on data from various sciences and the experience of human development. The philosophical form of worldview begins to mature in conditions of a high level of socio-economic and cultural level of society. Its first signs appear in the 12th-8th centuries BC. (in Ancient India, China, Egypt). Its origin as a specific form of spiritual activity was associated with the cultural revolution in Ancient Greece in the 8th-5th centuries BC. One of the most important prerequisites was the development of polis democracy, which opened up the possibility of free thinking. The relationship and difference between philosophy and religion RELIGION PHILOSOPHY COSMOLOGY. Answers the question: how does the world work? COSMOGONY. Answers the question: what is the origin of the world around us and how did its properties change over time? ANTHROPOLOGY. Answers the question: what is a person and what is his place in the world around him? EPISTEMOLOGY. Answers the question: what means of cognition of existence does a person have by nature and how and in what order should they be used in the matter of cognition? 1. THEOLOGY (theology). Answers the question: what is the divine authority that creates or organizes the world out of chaos? 2. THEOGONY. Answers the question: how did the divine authority evolve over time, changing the world accordingly? 3. ESCHATOLOGY. Answers the question: to what end does the divine principle direct the development of the world? 4. SOTERIOLOGY. Answers the question: how a person should behave in relation to the world.

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Philosophy developed over a long period of time together with natural science, and philosophers were also natural scientists. For a long time, philosophy meant the entire body of theoretical knowledge accumulated by humanity - practical observations and conclusions, the foundations of science, people’s thoughts about the world and themselves, about the meaning and purpose of human existence. Thus, Aristotle called physics the second philosophy. Biology and psychology (in our understanding) were also part of philosophy. Over time, other sciences begin to branch off from philosophy. First mathematics, later geometry and astronomy. After Hippocrates, Aristotle and Galen - medicine. During the Renaissance, physics separated from philosophy, and then chemistry appeared. In the 19th century, psychology was separated. In the 20th century, sociology and cultural studies appeared. political science, etc. Understanding the subject of philosophy is associated with socio-historical conditions. In antiquity, the meaning of philosophy was seen in the search for truth (Pythagoras), in the knowledge of eternal and absolute truths (Plato), in the comprehension of the universal in the world itself (Aristotle). In the era of the decomposition of ancient society, philosophy appeared as a means of liberating a person from fear of the future and suffering, contributing to the achievement of happiness and mental health (Epicurus). Some thinkers saw the essence of philosophy in finding truth, others in adapting it to their respective interests; some directed their gaze to God, others to the earth, some argued that philosophy is self-sufficient, others say that its task is to serve society. Aristotle Epicurus

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In the 19th and 20th centuries, many philosophical schools and directions, very different in nature, emerged, the subject of research of which was the diverse aspects of being, knowledge, man and human existence. What is common in various philosophical concepts Study of the most general questions of being The philosophical doctrine of being - ontology (from the Greek ontos - existing and logos - teaching) Analysis of the most general questions of knowledge The philosophical doctrine of knowledge - epistemology (from the Greek gnosis - knowledge, cognition and logos – teaching) Study of the most general issues of the functioning and development of society Social philosophy Study of the most general and significant problems of man Philosophical anthropology Philosophy is the doctrine of the general principles of existence, knowledge and relations between man and the world; this is a system of views on the world as a whole and on a person’s relationship to this world; this is a reflection on universal problems in the “world - man” system (P.V. Alekseev)

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The subject of philosophy is the universal in the “world-man” system. The subject of philosophy can be presented in its general contours as a subject of worldview, which has two subsystems of a substrate type - Man and the World; and four subsystems of relationships between them: genetic; educational; axiological; praxeological. man world Philosophy acts as: information about the world as a whole and man’s relationship to this world; a set of principles of cognition. Functions of philosophy: Worldview Methodological Worldview functions of philosophy: humanistic (place, role of man in the world, issues of life and death, search for the meaning of life, alienation of man, etc.); social-axiological (development of ideas about values, formation of ideas about the social ideal, interpretation, criticism of social reality); cultural and educational; explanatory-informational (reflective-generalizing). Methodological functions of philosophy: heuristic; coordinating; integrating; logical-gnoseological. genetic cognitive axiological praxeological

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The essence of philosophical problems (issues). In philosophy, problems center around man's relationship to the world as a whole. These problems can be divided into: ontological (ontology - the doctrine of being, philosophy of being)); anthropological (life outlook, existential); axiological (value); epistemological (epistemology - theory of knowledge); praxeological (spiritual-practical). Main philosophical problems (questions): How does spirit relate to matter? Do supernatural forces exist in the depths of existence? Is the world finite or infinite? In what direction is the Universe developing? Does the Universe have a purpose in its eternal motion? Are there laws of nature and society? What is a person and what is his place in the universal interconnection of the phenomena of the world? What is the nature of the human mind? How does a person understand the world around him and himself? What is truth and error? What is good and evil? In what direction and according to what laws is human history moving and what is its hidden meaning? All these questions are inextricably linked with the existence of man, with his need to understand the world and his relationship to it.

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Means of knowledge in philosophy Philosophy as a type of knowledge. Philosophical knowledge represents all types of knowledge available in human culture - they are intertwined and form an integral whole, i.e. philosophical knowledge is a complex type of knowledge. Philosophical knowledge has essential features characteristic of: natural science knowledge; ideology; humanitarian knowledge; artistic knowledge; transcendental comprehension of an object (religion, mysticism); ordinary (everyday) knowledge of people. ONTOLOGY (the doctrine of being) METHODOLOGY (the doctrine of method) GNOSEOLOGY (the doctrine of knowledge) PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE AESTHETICS SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY ETHICS PHILOSOPHICAL ANTHROPOLOGY HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY STRUCTURE OF PHILOSOPHICAL KNOWLEDGE LOGIC

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Means of knowledge in philosophy. The means of research in philosophy can be divided into: scientific - in contrast to the means of everyday knowledge, artistic exploration of reality and the means of religion); speculative (as opposed to experimental sciences); universal-categorical; critical-constructive-reflective. The method of philosophical research is dialectics, which is unthinkable without the rules and laws of formal logic. Philosophical knowledge also uses: induction and deduction; formal logical definitions; extrapolation method; idealization method; method of thought experiments; method of hermeneutic interpretation (revealing the inner meaning of texts); intellectual intuition. Philosophy and other sciences. Philosophy is a science that deals with the search and study of common features of the entire surrounding world as a whole and the inner world of man. If any other science studies any area or part of the world, then philosophy covers the whole world. Briefly and conditionally, we can call philosophy the science of everything. But not about everything in general, but about the most important features and basic signs of the universe and man. This feature of philosophy significantly distinguishes it from all other sciences and even contrasts it with them. The similarity of all sciences is that they study the same world around us. And their difference is that they study it in different ways, approach it from different sides. Botany studies the plant world, zoology studies animals, astronomy studies celestial bodies, geography studies continents and oceans, etc. Each science looks at some aspect of the world, deals with only one area of ​​it, strives to see and describe the facet of the universe that interests it. Philosophy tries to see everything around us as a whole. Any science, studying one thing, wants to obtain only part of the knowledge, while philosophy, studying everything, strives to obtain all the knowledge. Philosophy as a metascience sets itself global goals in understanding the world around us.

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Philosophy in the modern world As we have seen, the origin of science was closely connected with a philosophical orientation towards understanding the beginnings and causes of all things. However, today's science is radically different from this original ancient attitude. In modern life, a contradiction is revealed - science, having broken with the philosophical tradition, is increasingly invading our lives, and philosophy and humanitarian knowledge in general have begun to influence human behavior on a much smaller scale. Scientific and technical knowledge, divorced from humanitarian (humanistic) foundations, turns into a tool for manipulating natural and social processes. Science and scientific creativity in the modern world have turned out to be divorced from life values ​​and needs; man has become an appendage of machines and technological processes. The achievements of science and technology are turning into a tragedy, humanity is on the verge of an environmental catastrophe. In this regard, the task of philosophy and philosophers, and humanitarian knowledge in general, is to provide humanitarian expertise and develop strategic orientations for modern scientific and technological progress. Without philosophical knowledge, without a philosophical understanding of reality, it is impossible to build a free state and civil society, and the development of spiritual values ​​is impossible. Knowledge of philosophy liberates people, helps them understand the complex contradictions of life. Philosophy today acts as a form of orientation in non-standard situations.