Philosophical and legal views of J. Locke

John Locke (1632-1704) is rightfully considered a classic of modern empiricism. His treatise “An Essay on Human Reason” is perhaps the first major philosophical work entirely devoted to the problems of the theory of knowledge. Locke saw the main task of his epistemological research in clarifying human cognitive abilities, establishing their limits, knowledge of which would avoid fruitless disputes and corrosive skepticism, and would serve as an incentive to productive mental activity. “Our task here,” writes Locke, “is to know not everything, but what is important for our behavior. If we can find the standards by which a rational being in the position in which man is placed in this world can and should control his opinions and the actions that depend on them, we need not be embarrassed by the fact that some things elude our knowledge.

Like Descartes, Locke studied the origin and cognitive significance of the ideas of human thought. New times have radically grounded the high concept of “idea,” which in Plato’s philosophy denoted a supernatural essence and a perfect example of individual things, not associated with any empirical limitations. The medieval scholastic tradition attached the same ontological significance to ideas. Descartes, clearly distinguishing between the self-conscious subject and the physical reality cognizable by him, interprets the idea as a subjective state of the thinking mind and at the same time as a unique object of thought. Locke fully agrees with Descartes here, calling an idea everything that the mind notices in itself and that is the direct object of perception, thinking or understanding. Ideas are elements of the internal, mental world with which the soul is occupied in the process of thinking.

But Locke strongly disagrees with Descartes on the issue of the origin of ideas. Descartes argued the existence of innate ideas, the clarity and distinctness of which guarantees their correspondence to physical reality. Locke completely denies the possibility of innate knowledge and throughout the entire first book of his treatise he argues that the only source of ideas is experience; all our knowledge ultimately comes from experience. He is not at all convinced by the arguments of the supporters of rationalism regarding the supposedly general agreement of people regarding certain ideas and postulates, because, for example, small children have nothing of the kind imprinted in their minds. The moral principles of different peoples are also different. There are tribes that are not even familiar with the idea of ​​God.

All the material of thinking is supplied to our mind by “observation directed either at external tangible objects or at the internal actions of our soul, perceived and reflected by ourselves”2. From the experience of the senses addressed to external objects, we receive ideas of the various qualities of these objects. The internal perception of the activities of our mind provides ideas of a different kind that cannot be obtained from the outside.

Locke, D. Selected Philosophical Works. In 2 vols. / D. Locke. M., 1960. T. 1.S. 74. Ibid. P. 128.

These are the ideas of thinking, doubt, faith, reasoning, knowledge, desire. The source of these ideas, although not directly connected with external objects, is nevertheless similar to them, and Locke calls it “internal sense”, or reflection, understood as the observation to which the mind subjects its activities and the ways of their manifestation, as a result of which they arise in the mind. ideas for this activity. The experience of reflection can arise only after receiving sensations from the outside.

So, our ideas relating to external bodies have their source in the qualities of these bodies. Some of these qualities, according to Locke, cannot be separated from bodies, as well as from any particle of matter. These are extent, density, shape, mobility, quantity. Locke calls such qualities of bodies initial, or primary. Ideas of such qualities accurately reproduce the corresponding parameters of perceived objects. At the same time, such qualities as colors, sounds, tastes are subjective in nature and, being caused by various combinations of primary qualities, represent human experiences that are different from the causes that caused them. Locke calls this group of qualities secondary, emphasizing that in the bodies themselves there is nothing similar to the ideas of red, sweet, etc.

The distinction between primary and secondary qualities is by no means a discovery of Locke. It was found among ancient atomists and is generally characteristic of those philosophers who emphasize the decisive significance of the mechanical parameters of existence. It is no coincidence that Galileo turned to this same distinction in modern times.

The human soul, according to Locke, receives simple and unmixed ideas from our senses. They are delivered only by sensation and reflection (thinking, introspection). Simple ideas, according to Locke, cannot be created by the human mind, nor can they be arbitrarily destroyed by it, just as we cannot create any of the things of the material world from Nothing or, conversely, turn it into nothing. The mind can repeat, compare, combine these simple ideas, but it is not in its power to invent even one new simple idea. When perceiving, their mind is passive. At the same time, the mind is able to be active, using such ideas as material for the construction of new, complex ideas, which can be either modes, or substances, or relations (mathematical or moral).

Modes are understood here as complex ideas that depend on substances or are their properties. The idea of ​​a substance is that combination of simple ideas which is considered to represent separate, independently existing things. In this case, an unclear, according to Locke, idea of ​​substance as such is always assumed. The last idea is an assumption about an unknown bearer of those qualities to which simple ideas correspond. The ideas of material substance and spiritual substance are possible, but both of them are not distinct, although we have no reason to assert the non-existence of the corresponding substances. Locke defines his position regarding general concepts in the spirit of nominalism, recognizing the general as a product of the abstracting activity of the mind and asserting that only the individual really exists.

The human mind, according to Locke, knows things not directly, but through the ideas it has of these things. Therefore, knowledge is real only insofar as our ideas correspond to things. “But what will be the criterion here? How then does the mind, if it perceives only its own ideas, know their correspondence to the things themselves? Although this question is admittedly difficult, Locke argues that there are two kinds of ideas that we have a right to trust. These are, firstly, all simple ideas that are not inventions of our imagination, but natural and logical products of the things around us. Secondly, these are all complex ideas, except the ideas of substances. Non-substantial complex ideas are formed by the mind according to its free choice and are themselves the prototypes with which we relate things. Hence the specific reality of mathematical knowledge, as well as knowledge of moral principles. Ethical and mathematical statements are no less true because we ourselves form the corresponding ideas. Here, only consistency and consistency of ideas is enough.

Ideas of substance have their prototypes outside of us, so their knowledge may not be real. “The reality of our knowledge of substances is founded on this, that all our complex ideas of substances must be composed of such, and only such simple ideas as have been found to exist together in nature.”

Locke, D. Selected Philosophical Works. In 2 vols. / D. Locke. T. 1.S. 549.

The most reliable is intuitive cognition, in which the mind perceives the agreement or inconsistency of two ideas directly through them, without the involvement of other ideas. Thus the mind perceives that white is not black, that a circle is not a triangle, that three is greater than two. Locke believed that the reliability and evidence of all our knowledge depends entirely on such intuition, which leaves no room for hesitation or doubt.

Derivative from intuitive cognition is demonstrative or demonstrative cognition, achieved indirectly, with the participation of other ideas involved in the process of reasoning. Each step in the implementation of the proof must have intuitive certainty. In general, our knowledge never achieves everything that we would like to know. We have ideas of matter and thought, but it is not possible to know whether any material object thinks. Even God is but a complex idea formed by combining the idea of ​​infinity with the ideas of existence, power, knowledge, etc. Thus, “we have intuitive knowledge of our own existence, demonstrative knowledge of the existence of God, and for the existence of other things we have only sensory knowledge, which extends only to objects that directly appear to our senses”2.

Locke, like Descartes, considers ideas to be purely spiritual phenomena, therefore the transition from them to real external existence is a certain leap. But Locke, unlike Descartes, does not consider thinking to be substantial, and the conclusion suggests itself that recognizing the reality of things makes ideas illusory, whereas admitting the reality of ideas would turn the things themselves into products of our imagination.

Locke's socio-philosophical concept deserves some attention. Like Hobbes, he argues for the contractual origin of the state; but if in Hobbes the “natural state” of people, which preceded the state, is depicted in very gloomy tones and interpreted as a senseless and cruel war of all against all, then Locke paints this early phase of history as a state of equality, in which power and authority are mutual, and freedom is not accompanied by arbitrariness.

1 Locke, D. Selected Philosophical Works. In 2 vols. / D. Locke.

Human freedom is guided by natural law, which prohibits restricting another in his life, health, rights or property. Therefore, the power of the ruler, obtained on the basis of a contract, cannot infringe on the inalienable rights of every human person. Locke's views on religion are also moderate. Recognizing the proven existence of God, he at the same time advocates religious tolerance and considers state intervention in religious life unacceptable. Such a judicious and cautious worldview generally corresponded to the spirit of the times, which determined the popularity of Locke’s philosophy among his contemporaries, as well as its significant influence on the worldview of the Enlightenment.

The practical application of Locke's philosophical teachings was his pedagogical concept. If Ya.A. Comenius was mainly concerned with the effective organization of education for schoolchildren, then J. Locke continued the ideas of “natural pedagogy” in the direction associated with character education of the emerging personality. The beginning of the Enlightenment was marked by increased attention to the problem of the natural, i.e., corresponding to human nature , a worldview that would be built in accordance with experience. If experience in general is the source of our knowledge, then the organization of education should open up children’s access to purposeful experience that fills the soul with the knowledge necessary for life, as Descartes argued. and Spinoza, cloud our minds. Therefore, Locke believed, it is necessary to develop free will in a person so that it directs him to self-improvement. A child needs authority, and its source is, firstly, the divine will, supported by religious faith. secondly, state legal will based on a social contract, and thirdly, public morality and personal moral norms. The teacher’s task is to provide appropriate pedagogical influence that forms the necessary, beneficial personal experience of the student. The teacher must identify his positive inclinations, develop his active powers, and strengthen his physical and spiritual health.

Happiness is based on virtue, wisdom, good manners, and also on the possession of knowledge necessary for life.

Locke's pedagogy is practical and even down-to-earth. Thus, wisdom is understood by him as the art of prudently and skillfully conducting one’s affairs; he associates virtue with internal discipline, the ability to submit to the arguments of reason; all education should be based, in addition to reasonable discipline, on knowledge of the work of our body and the human will, as well as respect for other people and observance of moral standards.

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John Locke (John Locke, August 29, 1632, Wrington, Somerset, England - October 28, 1704, Essex, England) - British educator and philosopher, representative of empiricism and liberalism.

Locke was born in western England, near Bristol, in the small town of Wrington, in the family of a legal official. Puritan parents raised their son in an atmosphere of strict observance of religious rules. A recommendation from an influential acquaintance of his father helped Locke get into Westminster School in 1646, the most prestigious school in the country at that time, where he was among the best students. In 1652, John continued his education at Christ Church College, Oxford University, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1656, and three years later a master's degree. His talent and diligence were rewarded with an offer to stay at the educational institution and teach philosophy and ancient Greek. During these years, his more Aristotelian philosophy became interested in medicine, the study of which he devoted a lot of effort. Nevertheless, he failed to obtain the desired degree of Doctor of Medicine.

John Locke was 34 years old when fate brought him together with a man who greatly influenced his entire subsequent biography - Lord Ashley, later Earl of Shaftesbury. At first, Locke was with him in 1667 as a family physician and teacher of his son, and later served as a secretary, and this encouraged him to enter politics. Shaftesbury provided him with enormous support, introducing him to political and economic circles, giving him the opportunity to take part in government. In 1668, Locke became a member of the Royal Society of London, and the following year he joined its Council. He does not forget about other types of activity: for example, in 1671 he conceived the idea of ​​a work to which he would devote 16 years and which would become the main thing in his philosophical heritage - “An Essay on Human Understanding,” dedicated to the study of human cognitive potential.

In 1672 and 1679, Locke served in the highest government offices in prestigious positions, but at the same time, his advancement in the world of politics was directly dependent on the successes of his patron. Health problems forced J. Locke to spend the period from the end of 1675 to the middle of 1679 in France. In 1683, following the Earl of Shaftesbury and fearing political persecution, he moved to Holland. There he developed a friendly relationship with William of Orange; Locke has a noticeable ideological influence on him and becomes involved in the preparation of a coup, as a result of which William becomes king of England.

Changes allow Locke to return to England in 1689. From 1691, his place of residence became Ots, the Mesham estate, which belonged to his friend, the wife of a member of parliament: he accepted her invitation to settle in a country house, because... suffered from asthma for many years. During these years, Locke not only was in government service, but also took part in raising Lady Masham’s son, devoted a lot of energy to literature and science, completed “An Essay on Human Understanding,” and prepared for publication previously planned works, including “Two Treatises on Government.” ", "Thoughts on education", "The reasonableness of Christianity." In 1700, Locke decides to resign from all his positions.

Books (5)

Two Treatises on Government

John Locke was an English philosopher, psychologist and political thinker. The Two Treatises of Government contains Locke's socio-political concept. The first book is devoted to the refutation of the defender of the divine right of the absolutist royal power of R. Filmer, the second (known as the “Second Treatise on Government”) developed the theory of a constitutional parliamentary monarchy. Locke's ideas played a huge role in the history of philosophy and socio-political thought of the European Enlightenment. They had a great influence on Toland, Priestley, Berkeley, Hume, Voltaire, Condillac, La Mettrie, Helvetius, Diderot. Locke's political philosophy was developed by Montesquieu and was reflected in the political theories of the French and American revolutions.

John Locke is rightfully considered the first true liberal and the father of modern political philosophy. Without becoming familiar with Locke's ideas, it is impossible to understand the world in which we live.

Experience about human understanding

“An Essay Concerning Human Understanding” is the main philosophical work of John Locke, the result of his 16 years of work developing the foundations of the empirical theory of knowledge.

In this fundamental work, Locke, for the first time in the history of thought, expresses personality through the continuity of consciousness. He also argues that the mind is a “blank slate” (tabula rasa), that is, contrary to the philosophy of Descartes, he argues that people are born without innate ideas and that knowledge is determined only by experience gained through sensory perception.

John Locke is an outstanding philosopher of the 17th century who had a significant influence on the formation of Western philosophy. Before Locke, Western philosophers based their views on the teachings of Plato and other idealists, according to which the immortal soul of man is a means of obtaining information directly from the Cosmos. Its presence allows a person to be born with a ready-made store of knowledge, and he no longer needed to study.

Locke's philosophy refuted both this idea and the very existence of an immortal soul.

Biography facts

John Locke was born in England in 1632. His parents adhered to Puritan views, which the future philosopher did not share. After graduating with honors from Westminster School, Locke became a teacher. While teaching students Greek and rhetoric, he himself continued to study, paying special attention to the natural sciences: biology, chemistry and medicine.

Locke was also interested in political and legal issues. The socio-economic situation in the country pushed him to join the opposition movement. Locke becomes a close friend of Lord Ashley Cooper - a relative of the king and the head of the opposition movement.

In an effort to take part in the reformation of society, he gives up his teaching career. Locke moves to Cooper's estate and, together with him and several nobles who shared their revolutionary views, prepares a palace coup.

The coup attempt becomes a turning point in Locke's biography. It turns out to be a failure, and Locke and Cooper are forced to flee to Holland. Here, over the next few years, he devoted all his time to the study of philosophy and wrote his best works.

Cognition as a result of the presence of consciousness

Locke believed that this is the unique ability of the human brain to perceive, remember and display reality. A newborn baby is a blank sheet of paper, which does not yet have impressions and consciousness. It will be formed throughout life, based on sensory images - impressions received through the senses.

Attention! According to Locke's ideas, every idea is a product of human thought, which appeared thanks to already existing things.

Basic qualities of things

Locke approached the creation of each theory from the position of assessing the qualities of things and phenomena. Every thing has primary and secondary qualities.

Primary qualities include objective data about a thing:

• form;
• density;
• size;
• quantity;
• ability to move.

These qualities are inherent in every object, and focusing on them, a person forms his impression of each thing.

Secondary qualities include impressions generated by the senses:

• vision;
• hearing;
• sensations.

Attention! When interacting with objects, people receive information about them thanks to images that arise from sensory impressions.

What is property

Locke adhered to the concept that property is the result of labor. And it belongs to the person who put in this work. So, if a person planted a garden on the land of a nobleman, then the collected fruits belong to him, and not to the owner of the land. A person should own only the property that he received through his labor. Therefore, property inequality is a natural phenomenon and cannot be eradicated.

Basic principles of cognition

Locke's theory of knowledge is based on the postulate: “There is nothing in the mind that was not previously in the senses.” It means that any knowledge is the result of perception, personal subjective experience.

According to the degree of obviousness, the philosopher divided knowledge into three types:

• initial - gives knowledge about one thing;
• demonstrative – allows you to build conclusions by comparing concepts;
• higher (intuitive) – evaluates the correspondence and inconsistency of concepts directly with the mind.

According to the ideas of John Locke, philosophy gives a person the opportunity to determine the purpose of all things and phenomena, to develop science and society.

Pedagogical principles of raising gentlemen

1. Natural philosophy - it included exact and natural sciences.
2. Practical art - includes philosophy, logic, rhetoric, political and social sciences.
3. The doctrine of signs unites all linguistic sciences, new concepts and ideas.

According to Locke's theory about the impossibility of natural acquisition of knowledge through the Cosmos and the forces of nature, a person masters the exact sciences only through teaching. Most people are not familiar with the basics of mathematics. They have to resort to intense mental work over a long period of time to master mathematical postulates. This approach is also true for mastering the natural sciences.

Reference! The thinker also believed that the concepts of morality and ethics are inherited. Therefore, people cannot learn norms of behavior and become full-fledged members of society outside the family.

The educational process must take into account the individual characteristics of the child. The task of the educator is to gradually teach the future gentleman all the necessary skills, which include mastering the entire range of sciences and norms of behavior in society. Locke advocated separate education for children from noble families and children of commoners. The latter had to study in specially created workers' schools.

Political Views

John Locke's political views were anti-absolute: he advocated a change in the current regime and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy. In his opinion, freedom is the natural and normal state of the individual.

Locke rejected Hobbes's idea of ​​a “war of all against all” and believed that the original concept of private property was formed among people much earlier than the establishment of state power.

Trade and economic relations should be built on a simple scheme of exchange and equality: each person seeks his own benefit, produces a product and exchanges it for another. Forcible seizure of goods is a violation of the law.

Locke was the first thinker to take part in the creation of the founding act of state. He developed the text of the constitution for North Carolina, which in 1669 was approved and approved by members of the national assembly. Locke's ideas were innovative and promising: to this day, all North American constitutional practice is based on his teachings.

Individual rights in the state

Locke considered the main legal state to be three inalienable personal rights that every citizen has, regardless of his social status:

1. for life;
2. to freedom;
3. on property.

The constitution of the state must be created with an eye on these rights and be a guarantor of the preservation and expansion of human freedom. Violation of the right to life is any attempt to enslave: forcibly coercing a person into any activity, appropriating his property.

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Religious views

Locke was a strong supporter of the idea of ​​separation of church and state. In his work "The Reasonableness of Christianity" he describes the need for religious tolerance. Every citizen (with the exception of atheists and Catholics) is guaranteed freedom of religion.

John Locke considers religion not the basis of morality, but a means of strengthening it. Ideally, a person should not be guided by church dogma, but should independently come to broad religious tolerance.