home Astrology Characteristic features of humanism. The formation of Renaissance humanism Renaissance humanists

Characteristic features of humanism. The formation of Renaissance humanism Renaissance humanists

Renaissance humanism

Renaissance humanism, classical humanism- a European intellectual movement that was an important component of the Renaissance. It arose in Florence in the middle of the 14th century and existed until the middle of the 16th century; from the end of the 15th century it passed to Germany, France, partly to England and other countries.

Renaissance humanism is the first stage in the development of humanism, a movement in which humanism first emerged as an integral system of views and a broad current of social thought, causing a genuine revolution in the culture and worldview of the people of that time. The main idea of the Renaissance humanists was the improvement of human nature through the study of ancient literature.

Term

The original Latin form of this concept is studio humanitatis. In this form, it was introduced by the Renaissance humanists themselves, who reinterpreted Cicero, who at one time sought to emphasize that the concept of “humanity”, as the most important result of the culture developed in the ancient Greek city-states, was also instilled on Roman soil.

The meaning of the term "humanism" in the Renaissance (as opposed to today's meaning of the word) was: "zealous study of all that constitutes the integrity of the human spirit" because humanitas meant “the completeness and separation of human nature.” Also, this concept was contrasted with the “scholastic” study of the “divine” (studio divina). This understanding studio humanitatis first received its justification as an ideological program for a new mental movement in the writings of Petrarch.

Renaissance "humanism" is not a defense of human rights, but a study of man as he is. Humanism, from the point of view of Petrarch and other philosophers, meant moving man to the center of the world, studying man in the first place. The term “humanism” in this regard is somewhat synonymous with the word “anthropocentrism” and is opposed to the term “theocentrism”. In contrast to the religious philosophy of Western Europe, humanistic philosophy sets as its task the study of man with all his earthly and unearthly needs. Instead of ontological questions, ethical questions come to the fore.”

The word “humanist” appeared at the end of the 15th century. Actually, the term “humanism” in its current form, at the direction of Batkin, was first used in 1808 by the teacher F. Niethammer; after G. Voigt’s work “” (1859), a discussion of the historical content and limits of this concept began in science.

The humanists of the 15th century themselves usually called themselves “orators”, less often “rhetorians”, thereby emphasizing their difference from university scientists, as well as their connection with the ancient traditions of ancient orators.

Concept and activity

Vincenzo Catena. "Portrait of the Italian humanist Giangiorgio Trissino", 1510. The learned poet is depicted with a book - an attribute of knowledge

The humanists themselves talked about themselves as follows: Leonardo Bruni defined studio humanitatis so - “knowledge of those things that relate to life and morals, and which improve and adorn a person.” Salutati believed that this word combined “virtue and learning” (virtus atque doctrine), and “learnedness” presupposed the universality of knowledge based on mastery of “literature” (litterae), and “virtue” included spiritual meekness and benevolence (benignitas), meaning the ability to behave correctly. This virtue, according to humanists, was inseparable from classical education, and thus turned out to be not an innate quality, but something individually achieved through vigils over the classics. The Renaissance was dominated by the idea of cultivation, the “cultivation” of the soul through the study of ancient authors, the ability, through humanistic pursuits, to realize and identify all the possibilities inherent in nature in the individual. Guarino Veronese wrote: “there is nothing more suitable and appropriate for acquiring virtues and good behavior than diligent reading of learned ancient writers.” Humanists believed that through humanistic pursuits a person would be able to realize all the possibilities inherent in the individual and cultivate his “virtues.” For Petrarch studio humanitatis were primarily a means of self-knowledge.

Modern scholars clarify the interpretations: Paul Kristeller understands by Renaissance humanism a “professional field” of activity approximately between the years, which consisted of studying and teaching a well-known set of disciplines (grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history and moral philosophy, including political philosophy) on the basis of classical Greco-Latin education. Thus, as Batkin notes, such boundaries of humanism do not coincide with the medieval quadrivium, differ from the traditional nomenclature of the liberal arts and show a serious gap between humanism and the then university education (law, medicine, natural science, logic, theology, philosophy in understanding of natural philosophy).

E. Garen interprets Renaissance humanism as a new worldview, which led to a comprehensive change in culture and was an important stage in history and philosophy, and all thinking in general. The center of interests of humanists was “literature” - philology and rhetoric, the Word was at the center of philosophy, and the cult of beautiful and pure classical speech reigned. The word was identified with Knowledge and Virtue, it was understood as the embodiment of the universal and divine human nature, as its harmonious ethos and an instrument of practical human activity in the circle of friends, family and native community (ideal homo civilis).

Humanistic “literature” made it possible to develop a new worldview, which was imbued with criticism, secularism, contrasted itself with the themes and methods of medieval scholasticism and, in addition, made it possible for the first time to understand the historical distance in relation to antiquity.

The lifestyle and ideals of the humanists

Humanistic pursuits, as a rule, remained a private matter of humanists, their hobby, not being their profession, although they brought reputation, and as a result, gifts from patrons.

The Renaissance humanists were an informal group of like-minded people who were distinguished by their inner content, and not by their official type of activity. Representatives of completely different strata, conditions and professions became humanists. Although some of the humanists were members of old guilds and corporations, what united them had nothing to do with this: “their meeting place was a country villa, a monastery library, a bookstore, a sovereign’s palace, or just a private house, where it was comfortable to talk and leaf through manuscripts.” , look at antique medals. In imitation of the ancients, they began to call their circles academies". (See for example Plato's Academy in Careggi). Batkin notes that, apparently, humanists were the first intellectuals in European history; other researchers agree that “the emergence of that category of people who later came to be called humanists, in essence, marked the beginning of the process of emergence in this era secular intelligentsia". The unifying feature for the circle of humanists was an exclusively spiritual community, which remained too broad and unrelated to material interests; “the line between humanism as a state of mind and as an activity is conditional.” Vergerio points out that humanism is not a profession, but a calling, and denounces people who turn to literature for the sake of money and honors, and not for the sake of learning and virtue.

An important component studio humanitatis in the ideas of the humanistic environment there was “leisure” (otium, ozio), filled with high pursuits, sweet and gratifying, always contrasted with service and various business duties (negotium, ufficio). Freedom to manage your time and yourself is a precondition for becoming a humanist. Lorenzo Valla lists five important conditions necessary for scientific studies:

"Communication with educated people" (litteratorum consuetudo)
"Abundance of Books"
"Comfortable spot"
"Free time" (temporis otium)
"Peace of Mind" (animi vacuitas), a special “emptiness, unfilledness, release of the soul”, making it ready to be filled with learning and wisdom.

Humanists are reviving the philosophy of Epicureanism, which promotes pleasure - but primarily spiritual, not sensual (Cosimo Raimondi, "Defense of Epicurus", about 1420s; Lorenzo Valla, dialogue “On pleasure (On true and false good)”, 1433). The typical idea of the Renaissance is questa dolcezza del vivere(“this sweetness of life”).

At the same time, there was a concept about the close connection between the ideals of contemplative life (vita contemplativa) and active (vita activa), and the latter had to be aimed at the benefit of society. Humanist scientists considered themselves teachers (Pier-Paolo Vegerio, Guarino Veronese, Vittorino da Feltre) and considered their main task to educate a perfect person who, thanks to a humanitarian education, can become an ideal citizen. Sciences are studied in order to make people free. In room XIV - beginning. XV centuries Coluccio Salutati and Leonardo Bruni put forward a new ideal of civil life, close to the Florentines (vita civile), in which classical education became inseparable from active political activity for the benefit of the republic - see Civic Humanism. Northern Italian humanists who lived in monarchies more closely associated the idea of a perfect citizen with the ideal of a perfect sovereign; they also developed the ideal of a courtier obedient to him.

New ideal of man

In this environment, a new ideal of personality arose, generated by the secular and classical aspirations of the humanistic worldview. It was developed in humanistic literature.

The main principle of the entire humanistic ethics of the Renaissance was the doctrine of the high purpose of man, of his dignity - dignitas. He said that man, endowed with reason and an immortal soul, possessing virtue and limitless creative possibilities, free in his actions and thoughts, was placed at the center of the universe by nature itself. This doctrine was based on the views of ancient philosophy and also partly on the medieval theological doctrine that man was created in the image and likeness of God.(In essence, it was directed against Christian asceticism with its predetermination of man’s place in the hierarchy). One of the ancient sources of this idea was Cicero's dialogue "About laws."

“Nature, that is, God, has invested in man a heavenly and divine element, incomparably more beautiful and noble than anything mortal. She gave him talent, the ability to learn, reason - divine properties, thanks to which he can explore, distinguish and know what should be avoided and what should be followed in order to preserve himself. In addition to these great and priceless gifts, God also placed in the human soul moderation, restraint against passions and excessive desires, as well as shame, modesty and the desire to earn praise. In addition, God instilled in people the need for a strong mutual connection, which supports community, justice, fairness, generosity and love, and with all this a person can earn gratitude and praise from people, and favor and mercy from his creator. God has also placed in man’s chest the ability to withstand every labor, every misfortune, every blow of fate, to overcome every difficulty, to overcome sorrow, and not to be afraid of death. He gave man strength, fortitude, firmness, strength, contempt for insignificant trifles... Therefore, be convinced that man is born not to drag out a sad existence in inaction, but to work on a great and grandiose cause. By this he can, firstly, please God and honor him and, secondly, acquire for himself the most perfect virtues and complete happiness.”

Discussions on this topic were a favorite subject of humanists (Petrarch; Alberti, treatise "About family", 1433-43, 41; Manetti, treatise "On the Dignity and Superiority of Man" 1451-52; Ficino; Pico della Mirandola, "It's about human dignity" 1486) .

All their reasoning was imbued with one main idea - admiration for reason and its creative power. Reason is an invaluable gift of nature, which distinguishes man from all things, making him godlike. For the humanist, wisdom was the highest good available to people, and therefore they considered their most important task to be the promotion of classical literature. In wisdom and knowledge, they believed, a person finds true happiness - and this was his true nobility.

In contrast to the medieval and feudal ideal of the individual (religious and class), the new ideal, the humanistic one, had a clearly defined secular and social orientation. Humanists, drawing on the ancients, reject the importance of origin in assessing the dignity of a person, which now depends on his individual qualities.

Virtue

Other signs virtual, in addition to reason - prudence, moderation, courage, fortitude, patience, humanity, generosity, magnanimity, modesty, modesty, compassion. In addition, the ideal person is not only wise and happy, but also active. Alberti writes:

And we will say this: through kindness, a person creates and strengthens in himself true and endless peace and serenity of the soul, and lives free for himself, and as much as he is useful to himself, he is useful to others, satisfied with his thoughts, free from any anxiety. (...) True happiness is the calm and serenity of a joyful soul, free and content with itself.

Andrea Previtali. "Allegory of Fortune", 1490

The image of a person - the individual embodiment of a valiant and virtuous personality, will be embodied in the ideal of a perfect person (uomo universale). A person will feel like “the measure of all things” and have a proud consciousness of his superiority over the world, the high harmony of his physical and spiritual existence.

Other theses

Among other concepts important for the worldview of humanists, it should be noted:

Skills, knowledge and beliefs of humanists

Humanists were not narrow specialists, but were specialists in culture at all.“They are the bearers of a new nobility (nobilitas), identified with personal valor and knowledge." The humanist's main tool was philology. An impeccable knowledge of Latin and Greek, especially skillful command of classical Latin, was a necessary requirement for the reputation of a humanist; mastery of oral Latin was highly desirable. Clear handwriting and incredible memory were also required. In their studios, humanists were interested in the following subjects - grammar, rhetoric, ethics, history and poetry, etc. Humanists abandon medieval artistic forms, resurrecting new ones - poetry, the epistolary genre, fiction, philosophical treatises (as opposed to the scholastic pseudo-knowledge collected in various encyclopedias like Summa).

Not volgare, and classical Latin was in the hands of humanists the key to the Renaissance. Perfect mastery of “both languages” (i.e. Latin and Greek) led to the world of genuine ancient thought. Least of all, these people were purists for purism's sake. Latin united educated Europe not only in space, but also in time. To compose in the pure language of Cicero and Quintilian meant to include what was written in the great historical tradition, in a continuous cultural series, to clothe one’s work in bronze and marble, to attach it to eternity.

The highest reputation of humanism began to play a great role. A characteristic feature of the Renaissance was the highest social prestige of humanistic knowledge and talents, and the cult of culture. Good Latin style became a political necessity. In the first decades of the 15th century, admiration for humanistic learning would become a common feature of social life.

Attitude to antiquity

Humanists paid close attention to the study of primary sources rather than to others' interpretation of them. In addition, they were deeply disgusted barbarian latin, spoken in church and in universities. A side consequence of this thesis was the discovery of many previously lost classical texts, searches for Latin and Greek manuscripts in monastery libraries, and expeditions for ancient books.

Interest in antiquity becomes the defining thought of Renaissance humanism: “it is in it that they see the ideal that needs to be revived. For humanists, the Middle Ages seem to be a kind of “dark kingdom” that came after ancient culture. According to humanists, it is in imitation of ancient culture, in the revival of the ancient worldview, that the task of true philosophers lies. To do this, they translate almost all ancient Greek works from ancient Greek into Latin and modern languages; and everything that we now know about Ancient Greece, with few exceptions, was discovered precisely during the Renaissance. These works are not simply translated, but commented on, and the comments are not written from a theological point of view, but are textual, philological, so that many sciences arise, in particular philology in our modern understanding. This commentary was free from any dogmatic idea, and openness and freedom also characterized the humanists."

A common feature of the worldview of the early humanists, which stemmed from their characteristic desire to revive as much as possible the ideas and spirit of ancient culture, preserving (at the same time all the main content of the Christian doctrine), consisted in its paganization, that is, saturation with ancient, “pagan” moral and philosophical ideas. For example, Eneo Silvio Piccolomini, one of the humanists of this era, wrote that “Christianity is nothing more than a new, more complete presentation of the doctrine of the highest good of the ancients”- and, characteristically, Piccolomini will become Pope Pius II.

Any reasoning of humanists was supported by examples from ancient history. They loved to compare their contemporaries with the outstanding “men of antiquity” ( uomini illustri): the Florentines preferred the philosophers and politicians of Republican Rome, and the feudal circles preferred the generals and Caesars. At the same time, turning to antiquity was not felt as a resurrection of the dead - the proud self-awareness of themselves as direct descendants and continuers of traditions allowed humanists to remain themselves: “half-forgotten treasures of art and literature of antiquity are brought to light with jubilation, like expensive, long-lost property.”

Attitude to Christianity

Humanists never opposed themselves to religion. At the same time, opposing themselves to scholastic philosophizing, they believed that they were reviving the true Church and faith in God, without finding any contradiction in the combination of Christianity with ancient philosophy.

At the same time, in relation to the clergy, humanists experienced more negative emotions: “the weakening of the humanists’ ties with the church, since many of them lived on the income received from their professional activities (as well as from noble and wealthy people who were independent of the church), increased their hostility in relation to official scholarship, imbued with the church-scholastic spirit. For many of them, such hostility developed into a sharply critical attitude towards the entire system of this scholarship, to its theoretical and philosophical foundations, to authoritarianism, outside of and without which this scholarship could not exist. It is also important to recall that the humanistic movement began in Italy during the era of the decline of the moral and political authority of the papacy associated with the events of its Avignon captivity (1309-1375), frequent schisms of the Catholic Church, when antipopes appeared in opposition to the legitimate popes and when the supremacy was disputed at church councils popes in the life of the church (...) The revival of this [classical Latin] language was a form of criticism of the dominant church-scholastic scholarship and religious practice, which operated in a “spoiled”, inexpressive Latin, far from ancient Roman classical images.” Critical studies of the history of the Catholic Church appear (“On the forgery of the Gift of Constantine”).

Humanistic theory of art

An important theorist and practitioner working on this topic was Leon Battista Alberti. At the heart of early humanistic aesthetics was the idea of the ability of art to be imitated, borrowed from antiquity. "Imitation of Nature" ( imitatio, imitatio) is not simple copying, but a creative act with a conscious selection of the most perfect. The idea of “art” (as a craft) was introduced in conjunction with talent, genius (individual interpretation by the artist) - ars et ingenium, as a formula for the aesthetic assessment of a work of art. The concept of “similarity” ( similitudo) - as a direct likeness necessary for a portrait.

Genres of humanist creativity

Epistoles

Letters (epistoles) were one of the most common genres of humanist creativity. They used letters not for the exchange of topical and personal information, but for general reasoning and exercises in literature according to the Cicero model. The epistole was often sent not only to the addressee, but also to his friends, who, in turn, made copies of it, so that as a result the message was distributed in many copies. In essence, it was not a “letter”, as this concept is interpreted today, but a composition of a special literary genre, which in some ways anticipated journalism. Since the time of Petrarch, the letters of humanists from the very beginning were intended specifically for publication.

Renaissance humanism

1 Term
2 Concept and activities
3 Lifestyle and ideals of humanists
3. 1 New ideal of man
3. 1. 1 Virtue

3. 2 Other points

4 Skills, knowledge and beliefs of humanists
4. 1 Attitude to antiquity
4. 2 Attitude to Christianity
4. 3 Humanistic theory of art

5 Genres of humanist creativity

6. 1 Famous humanists

Bibliography

Introduction

Renaissance humanism, classical humanism- a European intellectual movement that was an important component of the Renaissance. It originated in Florence in the mid-14th century and existed until the mid-16th century; from the end of the 15th century it passed to Germany, France, partly to England and other countries.

Fresco by Raphael "School of Athens", where Leonardo and Bramante are depicted next to Pythagoras and Aristotle.

Renaissance humanism is not a defense of human rights, but a study of man as he is. Humanism, from the point of view of Petrarch and other philosophers, meant moving man to the center of the world, studying man in the first place. The term “humanism” in this regard is somewhat synonymous with the word “anthropocentrism” and is opposed to the term “theocentrism”. In contrast to the religious philosophy of Western Europe, humanistic philosophy sets as its task the study of man with all his earthly and unearthly needs. Instead of ontological questions, ethical questions come to the fore.”

The word “humanist” appeared at the end of the 15th century. Actually, the term “humanism” in its current form, at the direction of Batkin, was first used in 1808 by the teacher F. Niethammer; after G. Voigt’s work “The Revival of Classical Antiquity and the First Century of Humanism” (1859), a discussion of the historical content and limits of this concept began in science.

2. Concept and activities

The humanists themselves talked about themselves as follows: Leonardo Bruni defined studio humanitatis so - “knowledge of those things that relate to life and morals, and which improve and adorn a person.” Salutati believed that this word combined “virtue and learning” (virtus atque doctrine) (litterae) (benignitas), meaning the ability to behave correctly. This virtue, according to humanists, was inseparable from classical education, and thus turned out to be not an innate quality, but something individually achieved through vigils over the classics. The Renaissance was dominated by the idea of cultivation, the “cultivation” of the soul through the study of ancient authors, the ability, through humanistic pursuits, to realize and identify all the possibilities inherent in nature in the individual. Guarino Veronese wrote: “there is nothing more suitable and appropriate for acquiring virtues and good behavior than diligent reading of learned ancient writers.” Humanists believed that through humanistic pursuits a person would be able to realize all the possibilities inherent in the individual and cultivate his “virtues.” For Petrarch

a well-known set of disciplines (grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history and moral philosophy, including political philosophy) based on classical Greco-Latin education. Thus, as Batkin notes, such boundaries of humanism do not coincide with the medieval quadrivium, differ from the traditional nomenclature of the liberal arts and show a serious gap between humanism and the then university education (law, medicine, natural science, logic, theology, philosophy in understanding of natural philosophy).

3. Lifestyle and ideals of humanists

Humanistic pursuits, as a rule, remained a private matter of humanists, their hobby, not being their profession, although they brought reputation, and as a result, gifts from patrons.

The Renaissance humanists were an informal group of like-minded people who were distinguished by their inner content, and not by their official type of activity. Representatives of completely different strata, conditions and professions became humanists. Although some of the humanists were members of old guilds and corporations, what united them had nothing to do with this: “their meeting place was a country villa, a monastery library, a bookstore, a sovereign’s palace, or just a private house, where it was comfortable to talk and leaf through manuscripts.” , look at antique medals. In imitation of the ancients, they began to call their circles " (See for example Plato's Academy in Careggi). Batkin notes that, apparently, humanists were the first intellectuals in European history; other researchers agree that “the emergence of that category of people who later came to be called humanists, in essence, marked the beginning of the process of emergence in this era secular intelligentsia" The unifying feature for the circle of humanists was an exclusively spiritual community, which at the same time remained too broad and ephemeral, inaccessible to material consolidation; “the line between humanism as a state of mind and as an activity is conditional.” Vergerio points out that humanism is not a profession, but a calling, and denounces people who turn to literature for the sake of money and honors, and not for the sake of learning and virtue.

An important component studio humanitatis in the ideas of the humanistic environment there was “leisure” (negotium, ufficio). Freedom to manage your time and yourself is a precondition for becoming a humanist. Lorenzo Valla lists five important conditions necessary for scientific studies:

1. "Communication with educated people"

2. “Abundance of Books”

4. (temporis otium)

(animi vacuitas), a special “emptiness, unfilledness, release of the soul”, making it ready to be filled with learning and wisdom.

Humanists are reviving the philosophy of Epicureanism, which promotes pleasure - but primarily spiritual, not sensual (Cosimo Raimondi, "Defense of Epicurus", about 1420s; Lorenzo Valla, dialogue , 1433). The typical idea of the Renaissance is questa dolcezza del vivere(“this sweetness of life”).

At the same time, there was a concept about the close connection between the ideals of contemplative life (vita contemplativa) and active (vita activa), to educate a perfect person who, thanks to a liberal education, can become an ideal citizen. Sciences are studied in order to make people free. In room XIV - beginning. XV centuries Coluccio Salutati and Leonardo Bruni put forward a new ideal of civil life, close to the Florentines (vita civile), in which classical education became inseparable from active political activity for the benefit of the republic - see Civic humanism. Northern Italian humanists who lived in monarchies more closely associated the idea of a perfect citizen with the ideal of a perfect sovereign; they also developed the ideal of a courtier obedient to him.

New ideal of man

In this environment, a new ideal of personality arose, generated by the secular and classical aspirations of the humanistic worldview. It was developed in humanistic literature.

The main principle of the entire humanistic ethics of the Renaissance was the doctrine of the high purpose of man, of his dignity - He said that man, endowed with reason and an immortal soul, possessing virtue and limitless creative possibilities, free in his actions and thoughts, was placed at the center of the universe by nature itself. This doctrine was based on the views of ancient philosophy and also partly on the medieval theological doctrine that man was created in the image and likeness of God.(In essence, it was directed against Christian asceticism with its predetermination of man’s place in the hierarchy). One of the ancient sources of this idea was Cicero's dialogue

Leon Battista Alberti writes:

divine, thanks to which he can explore, discern and know what should be avoided and what should be followed in order to preserve himself. In addition to these great and priceless gifts, God also placed in the human soul moderation, restraint against passions and excessive desires, as well as shame, modesty and the desire to earn praise. In addition, God instilled in people the need for a strong mutual connection, which supports community, justice, fairness, generosity and love, and with all this a person can earn gratitude and praise from people, and favor and mercy from his creator. God has also placed in man’s chest the ability to withstand every labor, every misfortune, every blow of fate, to overcome every difficulty, to overcome sorrow, and not to be afraid of death. He gave man strength, fortitude, firmness, strength, contempt for insignificant trifles... Therefore, be convinced that man is born not to drag out a sad existence in inaction, but to work on a great and grandiose cause. By this he can, firstly, please God and honor him and, secondly, acquire for himself the most perfect virtues and complete happiness.”

Discussions on this topic were a favorite subject of humanists (Petrarch; Alberti, treatise "About family" "On the Dignity and Superiority of Man" 1451-52; Ficino; Pico della Mirandola, "It's about human dignity" 1486).

For the humanist, wisdom was the highest good available to people, and therefore they considered their most important task to be the promotion of classical literature. In wisdom and knowledge, they believed, a person finds true happiness - and this was his true nobility.

Virtue

Virtue (Italian virtú, lat. virtus) was the main defining category of the humanistic ideal of the individual. The person who possessed it was called But this concept, traditionally translated into Russian as “virtue, valor,” was even broader: it covered a whole range of moral norms and ideas, in addition, acquiring new shades throughout the 15th century. Unlike Christianity, for which the virtues were theological (faith, hope, charity), humanists proceeded from the principles of ancient ethics (Stoics, Aristotle, Cicero).

Aristotle introduces the idea, then repeated by Cicero, about the division of virtues into two kinds:

moral (courage, generosity, magnanimity, justice, friendliness)

mental (wisdom, prudence, ability for science and art)

The understanding of virtue as a reasonable self-restraint of passions and needs, as the harmony of human existence, goes back to Aristotle. And Cicero formulated the idea that virtue is an innate property of a person, improved by him in his life’s affairs, for it is “nothing more than nature that has achieved perfection and brought to its highest degree.”

For all humanists 1st floor. 15th century virtual was a universal category that determined the most important properties of the human personality, character and way of life. Originally an ideal was distinguished by strong features of religious and moral stoicism, but then it was softened by ideas about the inseparability of soul and body, spiritual and earthly needs, contemplative and active life. For the early humanists, the perfect person is is formed through joining studio humanitatis.

It is reason that guides a person to true virtue and wisdom. The first duty of man is to develop the mind through tireless knowledge and useful activity.

When asked by Alfonso of Aragon what the true purpose of a person is, Manetti answered briefly - “to act and think” ( age et intelligence).

with his own thoughts, free from any anxiety. (...) True happiness is the calm and serenity of a joyful soul, free and content with itself.

Other theses

Among other concepts important for the worldview of humanists, it should be noted:

· idea of the ratio free will with the concept of fortune. Unlike fate, which expresses the power of certain extraterrestrial forces over a person, fortune means social necessity, the pressure of circumstances. “And it is in relation to fortune, no matter how imperative it is in many cases, that the freedom of human will manifests itself with the greatest force. If in the face of fate the freedom of human will remains a supernatural secret of God, then in relation to fortune it is, in principle, in the hands of the person himself. Hence the unanimous proclamation of the freedom of human will by all humanists of the era in question, starting with Dante.” The motto of the Renaissance man was - Virtú vince fortuna

· proclamation the fundamental goodness of human nature and, more importantly, fundamental equality of all people, regardless of their birth, regardless of their belonging to one class or another.

· emphasizing the organic necessity of society, sociality for the harmonious development and existence of the human personality.

4. Skills, knowledge and beliefs of humanists

Humanists were not narrow specialists, but were specialists in culture “They are the bearers of a new nobility (nobilitas), identified with personal valor and knowledge." The humanist's main tool was philology. An impeccable knowledge of Latin and Greek, especially skillful command of classical Latin, was a necessary requirement for the reputation of a humanist; mastery of oral Latin was highly desirable. Clear handwriting and incredible memory were also required. In their studios, humanists were interested in the following subjects - grammar, rhetoric, ethics, history and poetry, etc. Humanists abandon medieval artistic forms, resurrecting new ones - poetry, the epistolary genre, fiction, philosophical treatises (as opposed to the scholastic pseudo-knowledge collected in various encyclopedias like Summa).

style became a political necessity. In the first decades of the 15th century, admiration for humanistic learning would become a common feature of social life.

4. 1. Attitude to antiquity

, spoken in church and in universities. A side consequence of this thesis was the discovery of many previously lost classical texts, searches for Latin and Greek manuscripts in monastery libraries, and expeditions for ancient books.

that came after ancient culture. According to humanists, it is in imitation of ancient culture, in the revival of the ancient worldview, that the task of true philosophers lies. To do this, they translate almost all ancient Greek works from ancient Greek into Latin and modern languages; and everything that we now know about Ancient Greece, with few exceptions, was discovered precisely during the Renaissance. These works are not simply translated, but commented on, and the comments are not written from a theological point of view, but are textual, philological, so that many sciences arise, in particular philology in our modern understanding. This commentary was free from any dogmatic notion, and openness and freedom also characterized the humanists."

A common feature of the worldview of the early humanists, which stemmed from their characteristic desire to revive as much as possible the ideas and spirit of ancient culture, preserving (at the same time all the main content of the Christian doctrine), consisted in its paganization “Christianity is nothing more than a new, more complete presentation of the doctrine of the highest good of the ancients”- and, characteristically, Piccolomini will become Pope Pius II.

Any reasoning of humanists was supported by examples from ancient history. They loved to compare their contemporaries with the outstanding “men of antiquity” ( ): the Florentines preferred the philosophers and politicians of Republican Rome, and the feudal circles preferred the generals and Caesars. At the same time, turning to antiquity was not felt as a resurrection of the dead - the proud self-awareness of themselves as direct descendants and continuers of traditions allowed humanists to remain themselves: “the half-forgotten treasures of art and literature of antiquity are brought to light with jubilation, like expensive, long-lost property.”

4. 2. Attitude towards Christianity

4. 3. Humanistic theory of art

An important theorist and practitioner working on this topic was Leon Battista Alberti. At the heart of early humanistic aesthetics was the idea of the ability of art to be imitated, borrowed from antiquity. "Imitation of Nature" ( imitatio, imitatio) is not a simple copying, but a creative act with a conscious selection of the most perfect. The idea of “art” (as a craft) was introduced in conjunction with talent, genius (individual interpretation by the artist) - , as a formula for the aesthetic assessment of a work of art. The concept of “similarity” ( ) - as a direct likeness necessary for a portrait.

5. Genres of humanist creativity

5. 1. Epistoles

in literature according to Cicero's model. The epistole was often sent not only to the addressee, but also to his friends, who, in turn, made copies of it, so that as a result the message was distributed in many copies. In essence, it was not a “letter”, as this concept is interpreted today, but a composition of a special literary genre, which in some ways anticipated journalism. Since the time of Petrarch, the letters of humanists from the very beginning were intended specifically for publication.

The style of these letters was characterized by solemnity and publicity. As the researchers note, perhaps “no other type of source so expressively shows the artificiality, contrivedness, and stylized nature of the life and communication of humanists as their epistles.” Characteristic subgenres of epistol:

· hortatoriae- "inspirational appeal"

The authors, having accumulated a sufficient number of epistles, compiled collections of them, which they included in their lifetime collections of works. This is what Petrarch did, for example, from whom everyone took an example. Petrarch revised and edited his "Letters to Loved Ones" addressed to the long-deceased Cicero or Seneca, which allowed the author to express his position on various issues.

6. Periods of Renaissance humanism

The historical basis for the formation of humanism (as well as the entire Renaissance as a whole) was the flourishing of cities, economic and social changes, the birth of a new man and the need for his conscious self-affirmation and education.

It is customary to divide into:

· Early, so-called ethical-philological or civic humanism(Italy), includes frames from Salutati to Lorenzo Valla and Leon Batista Alberti (late 14th-mid 15th centuries). Arose in connection with the study and teaching of rhetoric, grammar, poetry, history and moral philosophy based on classical education, as opposed to the themes and methods of medieval scholasticism.

· Since the last third of the 15th century in Italy, humanistic interests have shifted slightly to a different sphere (theology, natural philosophy, natural science). This meant the emancipation of traditional spheres of culture, but at the same time led to the loss of certain features and achievements of early humanism, as well as to more complex interactions with the medieval heritage (Florentine neoplatonism of Ficino, neo-Aristotelianism of Pomponazzi, etc.).

· Outside Italy, humanism is experiencing a new rise, coming into close connection with the conflicts of the Reformation of the 16th century and intertwining with the problems of cultural self-determination of European nations ( northern humanism: Erasmus of Rotterdam, Thomas More, Johann Reuchlin).

6. 1. Famous humanists

In Italy it is worth noting Petrarch (who is considered the first humanist), Boccaccio, Lorenzo Valla, Pico della Mirandola, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, then humanism spreads to other European countries simultaneously with the Reformation movement. Many great thinkers and artists of that time contributed to the development of humanism - Montaigne, Rabelais (France), Shakespeare, Bacon (England), L. Vives, Cervantes (Spain), Hutten, Durer (Germany), Erasmus of Rotterdam and others.

Literature

· Batkin L.M.. Italian humanists: lifestyle and style of thinking. M.: Nauka, 1978. Ed. on it. language 1990.

· Batkin L. M. Italian Renaissance: Problems and People. M.: Publishing house of the Russian State University for the Humanities, 1995.

· Bragina L. M. Italian humanism of the Renaissance. Ideals and practices of culture. M., 2002

· Gorfunkel A. Kh. Humanism and natural philosophy of the Italian Renaissance, M., 1977

· Korelin M. S. Early Italian humanism and its historiography, vol. 1-4, St. Petersburg, 1914

· Kudryavtsev O. F. Renaissance humanism and “Utopia”. M., 1991

· Revyakina N.V. Humanistic education in Italy in the XIV-XV centuries. Ivanovo, 1993

Bibliography:

1. Humanism (V. J. Kelle; L. M. Batkin) // Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary. M., 1983

2. Batkin L. M. Italian Renaissance: Problems and People. 1995, p. 48

3. V. P. Lega. Lectures on the history of Western philosophy

4. Grashchenkov V. N. Portrait in Italian painting of the Early Renaissance. M., 1996. T. 1. P. 70

5. Batkin quotes from the book. Marcel R. Marsile Ficin. Paris, 1958, p. 114

6. Batkin. Decree. Op. - P. 52.

7. Batkin. Decree. Op. - 61-2.

8. V.V. Sokolov. Renaissance philosophy

9. Batkin. Decree. Op. - P. 72

10. Grashchenkov. Decree. Op. P. 72.

11. Grashchenkov. Decree. Op. P. 74.

12. Batkin. Decree. Op. - P. 67.

13. Batkin. Decree. Op. - pp. 75-77.

14. Batkin. Decree. Op. - P. 105

15. G. Janitschek. Preface to Alberti's edition, 1877

16. Grashchenkov. Decree. Op. P. 85.

17. Petrarch. Letter to descendants

Material from Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia

Renaissance humanism, classical humanism- a European intellectual movement that was an important component of the Renaissance. It arose in Florence in the middle of the 14th century and existed until the middle of the 16th century; from the end of the 15th century it passed to Spain, Germany, France, partly to England and other countries.

Term

The word “humanist” appeared at the end of the 15th century. Actually, the term “humanism” in its current form, as noted by L. Batkin, was first used in 1808 by the teacher F. Niethammer; after G. Vogt’s work “” (1859), a discussion of the historical content and limits of this concept began in science.

Concept and activity

The humanists themselves talked about themselves as follows: Leonardo Bruni defined studio humanitatis so - “knowledge of those things that relate to life and morals, and which improve and adorn a person.” Salutati believed that this word combined “virtue and learning” (virtus atque doctrine), and “scholarship” presupposed the universality of knowledge based on mastery of “literature” (litterae), and “virtue” included spiritual meekness and benevolence (benignitas), meaning the ability to behave correctly. This virtue, according to humanists, was inseparable from classical education, and thus turned out to be not an innate quality, but something individually achieved through vigils over the classics. In the Renaissance, the idea of cultivation reigned, the “cultivation” of the soul through the study of ancient authors, the ability, through humanistic pursuits, to realize and identify all the possibilities inherent in nature in the individual. Guarino Veronese wrote: “there is nothing more suitable and appropriate for acquiring virtues and good behavior than diligent reading of learned ancient writers.” Humanists believed that through humanistic pursuits a person would be able to realize all the possibilities inherent in the individual and cultivate his “virtues.” For Petrarch studio humanitatis were primarily a means of self-knowledge.

The lifestyle and ideals of the humanists

Humanistic pursuits, as a rule, remained a private matter of humanists, their hobby, not being their profession, although they brought reputation, and as a result, gifts from patrons.
The Renaissance humanists were an informal group of like-minded people who were distinguished by their inner content, and not by their official type of activity. Representatives of completely different strata, conditions and professions became humanists. Although some of the humanists were members of old guilds and corporations, what united them had nothing to do with this: “their meeting place was a country villa, a monastery library, a bookstore, a sovereign’s palace, or just a private house, where it was comfortable to talk and leaf through manuscripts.” , look at antique medals. In imitation of the ancients, they began to call their circles academies". (See for example Plato's Academy in Careggi). Batkin notes that, apparently, humanists were the first intellectuals in European history; other researchers agree that “the emergence of that category of people who later came to be called humanists, in essence, marked the beginning of the process of emergence in this era secular intelligentsia". The unifying feature for the circle of humanists was an exclusively spiritual community, which remained too broad and unrelated to material interests; “the line between humanism as a state of mind and as an activity is conditional.” Vergerio points out that humanism is not a profession, but a calling, and denounces people who turn to literature for the sake of money and honors, and not for the sake of learning and virtue.

"Communication with educated people" (litteratorum consuetudo)
"Abundance of Books"
"Comfortable spot"
"Free time" (temporis otium)
"Peace of Mind" (animi vacuitas), a special “emptiness, unfilledness, release of the soul”, making it ready to be filled with learning and wisdom.

At the same time, there was a concept about the close connection between the ideals of contemplative life (vita contemplativa) and active (vita activa), Moreover, the latter had to be aimed at the benefit of society. Humanist scientists considered themselves teachers (Pier-Paolo Vegerio, Guarino Veronese, Vittorino da Feltre) and considered their main task to educate a perfect person who, thanks to a humanitarian education, can become an ideal citizen. Sciences are studied in order to make people free. In room XIV - beginning. XV centuries Coluccio Salutati and Leonardo Bruni put forward a new ideal of civil life, close to the Florentines (vita civile), in which classical education became inseparable from active political activity for the benefit of the republic - see Civic Humanism. Northern Italian humanists who lived in monarchies more closely associated the idea of a perfect citizen with the ideal of a perfect sovereign; they also developed the ideal of a courtier obedient to him.